Characterization of Autonomously Oscillating Viscosity Induced by Swelling/Deswelling Oscillation of the Microgels

Chemically Fueled Volume Phase Transition of Polyacid Microgels

Microgels are soft colloids that show responsive behavior and are easy to functionalize for applications. They are considered key components for future smart colloidal material systems. However, so far microgel systems have almost exclusively been studied in classical responsive switching settings using external triggers, while internally organized, autonomous control mechanisms as found in supramolecular chemistry and DNA nanotechnology relying on fuel-driven out-of-equilibrium concepts have not been implemented into microgel systems. Here, we introduce chemically fueled transient volume phase transitions (VPTs) for poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) microgels, where the collapsed hydrophobic state can be programmed using the fuel concentration in a cyclic reaction network. We discuss details of the system behavior as a function of pH and fuel amount, unravel kinetically trapped regions and showcase transient encapsulation and time-programmed release as a first application.

The Belousov-Zhabotinsky Reaction in Thermoresponsive Core-Shell Hydrogel Microspheres with a Tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium Catalyst in the Core

The Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction shows temporal or spatiotemporal structures such as redox oscillation of the catalyst, [ruthenium(II)tris(2,2'-bipyridine)][PF₆]₂ ([Ru(bpy)₃][PF₆]₂). In this study, autonomously oscillating hydrogel microspheres (microgels) were investigated, which show swelling/deswelling oscillation induced by the redox oscillation of the BZ reaction inside the gel. Despite the periodically and autonomously induced oscillation that does not require an external stimulus, it has not been possible to perform any manipulation of the oscillatory behavior over time. The results of the present study show that it is possible to reversibly switch the microgel oscillations from an "on" active state of the BZ reaction to an "off" inactive state by changing the temperature in combination with thermoresponsive microgels. To realize on-demand switching, the construction of double-shell structures is crucial; the thermoresponsive first shell allows the microgels to modulate the diffusion of the substrates or intermediates in the BZ reaction, while the second shell maintains colloidal stability under high temperatures and high ion concentrations. The functionalized double-shell microgels were prepared via multistep seeded precipitation polymerization. The oscillatory switching behavior of the BZ reaction was observed directly and evaluated by ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy. The central concept of this study, i.e., "on-off switching" can be expected to benefit the development of advanced bioinspired materials.

Small-Angle X-ray Scattering Study on Internal Microscopic Structures of Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-tris(2,2'-bipyridyl))ruthenium(II) Complex Microgels

Internal microscopic structures of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-tris(2,2'-bipyridyl))ruthenium(II) complex microgels were investigated using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) in the extended q-range of 0.07 ≤ q/nm(-1) ≤ 20. The microgels were prepared by aqueous free-radical precipitation polymerization, resulting in formation of monodispersed, submicrometer-sized microgels, which was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. To reveal the changes in the microscopic structures of the microgels during swelling/deswelling or dispersing/flocculating oscillation, the redox state of Ru(bpy)3 complexes was fixed in the microgels using Ce(IV) or Ce(III) ions under high ionic strength (1.5 M) during the SAXS measurements. The scattering intensity of the microgels manifested five different structural features. In particular, the correlation length (ξ), which was obtained from the fitting analysis using the Ornstein-Zernike equation, of the microgels both in the reduced and oxidized Ru(bpy)3 states exhibited divergent-like behavior. In addition, a low-q peak centered at q ≈ 5 nm(-1) did not appear clearly in both the reduced [Ru(bpy)3](2+) and oxidized [Ru(bpy)3](3+) states, indicating that the formation of a polymer-rich domain was suppressed; thus, Ru(bpy)3 complexes can be active even though the microgels are deswollen or flocculated during the oscillation reaction.

Recent aspects of self-oscillating polymeric materials: designing self-oscillating polymers coupled with supramolecular chemistry and ionic liquid science

Herein, we summarise the recent developments in self-oscillating polymeric materials based on the concepts of supramolecular chemistry, where aggregates of molecular building blocks with non-covalent bonds evolve the temporal or spatiotemporal structure.

Self-oscillating polymer gels as novel biomimetic materials

Stimuli-responsive polymer gels and their application to smart materials have been widely studied. On the other hand, as a novel biomimetic gel, we developed gels with an autonomous self-oscillating function like a heart muscle, which was firstly reported in 1996. We designed the self-oscillating polymers and gels by utilizing the oscillating reaction, called the Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction as a chemical model of the TCA cycle. The self-oscillating polymer is composed of a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) network in which the metal catalyst for the BZ reaction is covalently bonded. In a closed solution containing the reactants other than the catalyst, the polymer gel undergoes spontaneous cyclic swelling-deswelling changes without any on-off switching of external stimuli. Their potential applications include several kinds of functional material systems, such as biomimetic actuators and mass transport surface. Here recent progress on the novel polymer gels is introduced.

Self-oscillating gels beating like a heart muscle

So far stimuli-responsive polymer gels and their application to smart materials have been widely studied. On the other hand, as a novel biomimetic gel, we developed gels with an autonomous self-oscillating function like a heart muscle, which was firstly reported in 1996. We designed the self-oscillating polymers and gels by utilizing the oscillating reaction, called the Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction. The self-oscillating polymer is composed of a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) network in which the catalyst for the BZ reaction is covalently immobilized. In the presence of the reactants, the polymer gel undergoes spontaneous cyclic swelling-deswelling changes without any on-off switching of external stimuli. Potential applications of the self-oscillating polymers and gels include several kinds of functional material systems, such as bio-mimetic actuators and mass transport surface. In this review, recent progress on the polymer gels is introduced.

Effect of nanointegration on photoinduced hydrogen-generating nanogel systems

The nanointegration mechanism for photoinduced hydrogen nanogenerators using nanogels is described. By spatially integrating poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-Ru(bpy)(3)) nanogels as a photosensitizer and Pt nanoparticles as a catalyst, a mechanism using electrostatic interactions and the shrinking behavior of the thermosensitive polymer network is revealed. In addition, to evaluate the sensitivity to exterior energy, light, and heat, the integrated nanospace is controlled by using thermosensitive nanogels, which drastically shrink above the volume phase transition temperature. Such nanospatial control of multiple kinds of functional molecules in a photochemical reaction is important for the realization of artificial photosynthetic systems.

Self-oscillating gels driven by the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction as novel smart materials

So far stimuli-responsive polymer gels and their application to smart materials have been widely studied; this research has contributed to progress in gel science and engineering. For their development as a novel biomimetic polymer, studies of polymers with an autonomous self-oscillating function have been carried out since the first reports in 1996. The development of novel self-oscillating polymers and gels have been successful utilizing the oscillating reaction, called the Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction, which is recognized as a chemical model for understanding several autonomous phenomena in biological systems. The self-oscillating polymer is composed of a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) network in which the catalyst for the BZ reaction is covalently immobilized. In the presence of the reactants, the polymer undergoes spontaneous cyclic soluble-insoluble changes or swelling-deswelling changes (in the case of gel) without any on-off switching of external stimuli. Potential applications of the self-socillating polymers and gels include several kinds of functional material systems, such as biomimetic actuators and mass transport surface.