Pump−Probe Spectroscopy of Ultrafast Electron Injection from the Excited State of an Anchored Chromophore to a Semiconductor Surface in UHV: A Theoretical Model

Synthesis and Properties of Perylene-Bridge-Anchor Chromophoric Compounds

The quest to control chromophore/semiconductor properties to enable new technologies in energy and information science requires detailed understanding of charge carrier dynamics at the atomistic level, which can often be attained through the use of model systems. Perylene-bridge-anchor compounds are successful models for studying fundamental charge transfer processes on TiO₂, which remains among the most commonly investigated and technologically important interfaces, mostly because of perylene's advantageous electronic and optical properties. Nonetheless, the ability to fully exploit synthetically the substitution pattern of perylene with linker (= bridge-anchor) units remains little explored. Here we developed 2,5-di-tert-butylperylene (DtBuPe)-bridge-anchor compounds with t-Bu group substituents to prevent π-stacking and one or two linker units in both the peri and ortho positions, by employing a combination of Friedel-Crafts alkylations, bromination, iridium-catalyzed borylation, and palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions. Photophysical characterization and computational analysis by density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT) were carried out on four DtBuPe acrylic acid derivatives with a single or a double linker in peri (12b), ortho (15b), peri,peri (18b), and ortho,ortho (21b). The energies of the unoccupied orbitals {LUMO, LUMO + 1, LUMO + 2} are strongly affected by the presence of a π-conjugated linker, resulting in a stabilization of these states and a red shift of their absorption and emission spectra, as well as the loss of vibronic structure in the spectrum of the peri,peri compound, consistent with the strong bonding character of this substitution pattern.

A non-perturbative approach to simulate heterogeneous electron transfer dynamics: Effective mode treatment of the continuum electronic states

We propose a non-perturbative method to simulate heterogeneous electron transfer dynamics in systems described by a Newns-Anderson type of model. The coupling between the molecule and the continuum electronic states at the metal or semiconductor surface is represented using a set of effective modes, by employing an exponential expansion of the bath correlation functions. Depending on the nature of the problems, the nuclear degrees of freedom are either treated explicitly using wave functions and density operators or as dissipative modes using the techniques from the hierarchical equations of the motion method. Numerical examples are also presented for applications in problems including (1) photo-induced charge transfer at the molecule-semiconductor interfaces, (2) heterogeneous electron transfer at the molecule-metal interface, and (3) vibrational relaxation on a metal surface.

Ultrafast photoelectron migration in dye-sensitized solar cells: Influence of the binding mode and many-body interactions

In the present contribution, the ultrafast photoinduced electron migration dynamics at the interface between an alizarin dye and an anatase TiO₂ thin film is investigated from first principles. Comparison between a time-dependent many-electron configuration interaction ansatz and a single active electron approach sheds light on the importance of many-body effects, stemming from uniquely defined initial conditions prior to photoexcitation. Particular emphasis is put on understanding the influence of the binding mode on the migration process. The dynamics is analyzed on the basis of a recently introduced toolset in the form of electron yields, electronic fluxes, and flux densities, to reveal microscopic details of the electron migration mechanism. From the many-body perspective, insight into the nature of electron-electron and hole-hole interactions during the charge transfer process is obtained. The present results reveal that the single active electron approach yields quantitatively and phenomenologically similar results as the many-electron ansatz. Furthermore, the charge migration processes in the dye-TiO₂ model clusters with different binding modes exhibit similar mechanistic pathways but on largely different time scales.

Disrupted Attosecond Charge Carrier Delocalization at a Hybrid Organic/Inorganic Semiconductor Interface

Despite significant interest in hybrid organic/inorganic semiconductor interfaces, little is known regarding the fate of charge carriers at metal oxide interfaces, particularly on ultrafast time scales. Using core-hole clock spectroscopy, we investigate the ultrafast charge carrier dynamics of conductive ZnO films at a hybrid interface with an organic semiconductor. The adsorption of C60 on the ZnO surface strongly suppresses the ultrafast carrier delocalization and increases the charge carrier residence time from 400 attoseconds to nearly 30 fs. Here, we show that a new hybridized interfacial density of states with substantial molecular character is formed, fundamentally altering the observed carrier dynamics. The remarkable change in the dynamics sheds light on the fate of carriers at hybrid organic/inorganic semiconductor interfaces relevant to organic optoelectronics and provides for the first time an atomistic picture of the electronically perturbed near-interface region of a metal oxide.

Quantum dynamical simulation of photoinduced electron transfer processes in dye-semiconductor systems: theory and application to coumarin 343 at TiO₂

A recently developed methodology to simulate photoinduced electron transfer processes at dye-semiconductor interfaces is outlined. The methodology employs a first-principles-based model Hamiltonian and accurate quantum dynamics simulations using the multilayer multiconfiguration time-dependent Hartree approach. This method is applied to study electron injection in the dye-semiconductor system coumarin 343-TiO2. Specifically, the influence of electronic-vibrational coupling is analyzed. Extending previous work, we consider the influence of Dushinsky rotation of the normal modes as well as anharmonicities of the potential energy surfaces on the electron transfer dynamics.

Effect of TiO2particles on normal and resonance Raman spectra of coumarin 343: a theoretical investigation

Both the normal Raman spectra (NRS) and resonance Raman spectra (RRS) can be used to figure out the isomers and their interfacial structures. Furthermore, the differences in RRS between the locally excited state and the charge transfer state of C343–TiO₂are helpful to understand and control the electron transfer at the interface.

Synchrotron ultrafast techniques for photoactive transition metal complexes

In the last decade, the use of time-resolved X-ray techniques has revealed the structure of light-generated transient species for a wide range of samples, from small organic molecules to proteins. Time resolutions of the order of 100 ps are typically reached, allowing one to monitor thermally equilibrated excited states and capture their structure as a function of time. This review aims at providing a general overview of the application of time-resolved X-ray solution scattering (TR-XSS) and time-resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy (TR-XAS), the two techniques prevalently employed in the investigation of light-triggered structural changes of transition metal complexes. In particular, we herein describe the fundamental physical principles for static XSS and XAS and illustrate the theory of time-resolved XSS and XAS together with data acquisition and analysis strategies. Selected pioneering examples of photoactive transition metal complexes studied by TR-XSS and TR-XAS are discussed in depth.

Theoretical investigation of resonance Raman scattering of dye molecules absorbed on semiconductor surfaces

A method in time domain is proposed to investigate resonance Raman spectra of absorbed molecules on semiconductor surfaces. The charge transfer at the molecule-surface interface is incorporated with the use of an Anderson-Newns type Hamiltonian, where the surface continuum state is dealt with an expansion of Legendre polynomials for fast numerical convergence. From a model test, it is found that the intensities of Raman modes in the sole molecule generally decrease as the molecule-surface interaction is switched on, except that the energy gaps between the molecular excited state and the bottom of the band are at special values. New Raman peaks which are not observed in the sole molecule, however, appear and are greatly enhanced. The enhancement depends on the electronic coupling and the energy gap. It is also highly sensitive to the mode-specific reorganization energy in the charge transfer state, and a thousand times enhancement can be obtained at a certain reorganization energy. The corresponding electron dynamics is revealed by the population decay from the absorbed molecule.

Organic polyaromatic hydrocarbons as sensitizing model dyes for semiconductor nanoparticles

The study of interfacial charge-transfer processes (sensitization) of a dye bound to large-bandgap nanostructured metal oxide semiconductors, including TiO(2), ZnO, and SnO(2), is continuing to attract interest in various areas of renewable energy, especially for the development of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The scope of this Review is to describe how selected model sensitizers prepared from organic polyaromatic hydrocarbons have been used over the past 15 years to elucidate, through a variety of techniques, fundamental aspects of heterogeneous charge transfer at the surface of a semiconductor. This Review does not focus on the most recent or efficient dyes, but rather on how model dyes prepared from aromatic hydrocarbons have been used, over time, in key fundamental studies of heterogeneous charge transfer. In particular, we describe model chromophores prepared from anthracene, pyrene, perylene, and azulene. As the level of complexity of the model dye-bridge-anchor group compounds has increased, the understanding of some aspects of very complex charge transfer events has improved. The knowledge acquired from the study of the described model dyes is of importance not only for DSSC development but also to other fields of science for which electronic processes at the molecule/semiconductor interface are relevant.

Modeling of nanoscale morphology of regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) on a ZnO (1010) surface

We report detailed ab initio calculations of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) on top of a ZnO (1010) surface. We studied different absorption sites and orientations. We found that the P3HT chain prefers to lay along the dimer row direction of the ZnO surface. We also found strong coupling between the P3HT molecule and the ZnO substrate in the conduction band states, while minimum coupling in the valence band states.

Quantum dot solar cells. Tuning photoresponse through size and shape control of CdSe-TiO2 architecture

Different-sized CdSe quantum dots have been assembled on TiO2 films composed of particle and nanotube morphologies using a bifunctional linker molecule. Upon band-gap excitation, CdSe quantum dots inject electrons into TiO2 nanoparticles and nanotubes, thus enabling the generation of photocurrent in a photoelectrochemical solar cell. The results presented in this study highlight two major findings: (i) ability to tune the photoelectrochemical response and photoconversion efficiency via size control of CdSe quantum dots and (ii) improvement in the photoconversion efficiency by facilitating the charge transport through TiO2 nanotube architecture. The maximum IPCE (photon-to-charge carrier generation efficiency) obtained with 3 nm diameter CdSe nanoparticles was 35% for particulate TiO2 and 45% for tubular TiO2 morphology. The maximum IPCE observed at the excitonic band increases with decreasing particle size, whereas the shift in the conduction band to more negative potentials increases the driving force and favors fast electron injection. The maximum power-conversion efficiency </=1% obtained with CdSe-TiO2 nanotube film highlights the usefulness of tubular morphology in facilitating charge transport in nanostructure-based solar cells. Ways to further improve power-conversion efficiency and maximize light-harvesting capability through the construction of a rainbow solar cell are discussed.

Theoretical study of ultrafast heterogeneous electron transfer reactions at dye-semiconductor interfaces: coumarin 343 at titanium oxide

A theoretical study of photoinduced heterogeneous electron transfer in the dye-semiconductor system coumarin 343-TiO(2) is presented. The study is based on a generic model for heterogeneous electron transfer reactions, which takes into account the coupling of the electronic states to the nuclear degrees of freedom of coumarin 343 as well as to the surrounding solvent. The quantum dynamics of the electron injection process is simulated employing the recently proposed multilayer formulation of the multiconfiguration time-dependent Hartree method. The results reveal an ultrafast injection dynamics of the electron from the photoexcited donor state into the conduction band of the semiconductor. Furthermore, the mutual influence of electronic injection dynamics and nuclear motion is analyzed in some detail. The analysis shows that--depending on the time scale of nuclear motion--electronic vibrational coupling can result in electron transfer driven by coherent vibrational motion or vibrational motion induced by ultrafast electron transfer.

Time-Domain ab Initio Study of Charge Relaxation and Recombination in Dye-Sensitized TiO2

In order to investigate the electron dynamics at the alizarin/I2-/TiO2 interface this study uses a novel state-of-the-art quantum-classical approach that combines time-dependent density functional theory with surface hopping in the Kohn-Sham basis. Representing the dye-sensitized semiconductor Grätzel cell with the I-/I3- mediator, the system addresses the problems of an organic/inorganic, molecule/bulk interface that are commonly encountered in molecular electronics, photovoltaics, and photoelectrochemistry. The processes studied include the relaxation of the injected electron inside the TiO2 conduction band (CB), the back electron transfer (ET) from TiO2 to alizarin, the ET from the surface to the electrolyte, and the regeneration of the neutral chromophore by ET from the electrolyte to alizarin. Developing a theoretical understanding of these processes is crucial for improving solar cell design and optimizing photovoltaic current and voltage. The simulations carried out for the entire system that contains many electronic states reproduce the experimental time scales and provide detailed insights into the ET dynamics. In particular, they demonstrate the differences between the optimized geometric and electronic structure of the system at 0 K and the experimentally relevant structure at ambient temperature. The relaxation of the injected electron inside the TiO2 CB, which affects the solar cell voltage, is shown to occur on a 100 fs time scale and occurs simultaneously with the electron delocalization into the semiconductor bulk. The transfer of the electron trapped at the surface to the ground state of alizarin proceeds on a 1 ps time scale and is facilitated by vibrational modes localized on alizarin. If the electrolyte mediator is capable of approaching the semiconductor surface, it can form a stable complex and short-circuit the cell by accepting the photoexcited electron on a subpicosecond time scale. The ET from TiO2 to both alizarin and the electrolyte diminishes the solar cell current. Finally, the simulations show that the electrolyte can efficiently regenerate the neutral chromophore. This is true even though the two species do not form a chemical bond and, therefore, the electronic coupling between them is weaker than in the TiO2-chromophore and TiO2-electrolyte donor-acceptor pairs. The chromophore-electrolyte coupling can occur both directly through space and indirectly through bonding to the semiconductor surface. The ET events involving the electrolyte are promoted primarily by the electrolyte vibrational modes.

Theoretical Studies of Photoinduced Electron Transfer in Dye-Sensitized TiO2

This review describes recent research into the properties of the chromophore-TiO2 interface that forms the basis for photoinduced charge separation in dye-sensitized semiconductor solar cells. It focuses particularly on an atomistic picture of the electron-injection dynamics. The interface offers an excellent case study, pertinent as well to a variety of other photovoltaic systems, photo- and electrochemistry, molecular electronics, analytical detection, photography, and quantum confinement devices. The differences between chemists' and physicists' models for describing molecules and bulk materials, respectively, create challenges for the characterization of interfaces that include both of these components. We give an overall picture of the interface by starting with a description of the properties of the chromophores and semiconductor separately, and then by discussing the coupled system, including the chromophore-semiconductor binding, electronic structure, and electron-injection dynamics. Explicit time-dependent modeling is particularly valuable for an understanding of the ultrafast electron injection because it shows a variety of individual injection events with well-defined dynamical features that cannot be made apparent by an average reaction-rate description.

Role of Molecular Anchor Groups in Molecule-to-Semiconductor Electron Transfer

The dynamics of heterogeneous electron transfer (ET) from the polycyclic aromatic chromophore perylene to nanostructured TiO2 anatase was investigated for two different anchor groups with transient absorption spectroscopy in an ultrahigh vacuum. Data from ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy and from linear absorption spectroscopy showed that the donor state of the chromophore was located around 900 meV above the lower edge of the conduction band. With the wide band limit fulfilled the rate of the heterogeneous ET reaction was only controlled by the strength of the electronic coupling and not reduced by Franck-Condon factors. Two different time constants for the electron transfer, i.e., 13 and 28 fs, were measured with carboxylic acid and phosphonic acid as the respective anchor groups. The difference in the ET time constants was explained with the different extension of the donor orbital onto the respective anchor group to reach the empty electronic states of the semiconductor. The time constants were extracted by means of a simple rate equation model. The validity of applying this model on this ultrafast time scale was verified by comparing the rate equation model with an optical Bloch equation model.

Theory of photoinduced heterogeneous electron transfer

We consider electron injection into the conduction band of a semiconductor, from an electronically excited state of a dye molecule, adsorbed on its surface. For arbitrary width of the conduction band, the survival probability of the excited state can be calculated using a Green's-function approach. We show that the existence of a split-off state can play an important role in the total injection probability. In the wide band limit, the survival probability decays exponentially, but for finite band widths it does not. We further investigate the effect of vibrations on the process. A Green's operator technique may be used to solve this too exactly. We show that the problem may be reduced to a non-Hermitian eigenvalue problem for the vibrational states alone. Exact results can be obtained for arbitrary bandwidth and for a few vibrational degrees of freedom. In the wide band limit, the dynamics is particularly simple and we find that (1) the survival probability of the excited state is unchanged by the inclusion of vibrational motion, but (2) each vibrational state now has a finite lifetime. Numerical results are presented for the effects of reorganization energy, energy of the injecting level, and the variation of the matrix element for the electron injection, on the survival probability of the electron in the excited state. As an illustration of the approach, we also present results of numerical calculation of the absorption spectrum of perylene adsorbed on TiO(2) and compare it with experimental results.

Quantum Dot Solar Cells. Harvesting Light Energy with CdSe Nanocrystals Molecularly Linked to Mesoscopic TiO2 Films

By using bifunctional surface modifiers (SH-R-COOH), CdSe quantum dots (QDs) have been assembled onto mesoscopic TiO(2) films. Upon visible light excitation, CdSe QDs inject electrons into TiO(2) nanocrystallites. Femtosecond transient absorption as well as emission quenching experiments confirm the injection from the excited state of CdSe QDs into TiO(2) nanoparticles. Electron transfer from the thermally relaxed s-state occurs over a wide range of rate constant values between 7.3 x 10(9) and 1.95 x 10(11) s(-1). The injected charge carriers in a CdSe-modified TiO(2) film can be collected at a conducting electrode to generate a photocurrent. The TiO(2)-CdSe composite, when employed as a photoanode in a photoelectrochemical cell, exhibits a photon-to-charge carrier generation efficiency of 12%. Significant loss of electrons occurs due to scattering as well as charge recombination at TiO(2)/CdSe interfaces and internal TiO(2) grain boundaries.

Influence of Thermal Fluctuations on Interfacial Electron Transfer in Functionalized TiO2 Semiconductors

The influence of thermal fluctuations on the dynamics of interfacial electron transfer in sensitized TiO2-anatase semiconductors is investigated by combining ab initio DFT molecular dynamics simulations and quantum dynamics propagation of transient electronic excitations. It is shown that thermal nuclear fluctuations speed up the underlying interfacial electron transfer dynamics by introducing nonadiabatic transitions between electron acceptor states, localized in the vicinity of the photoexcited adsorbate, and delocalized states extended throughout the semiconductor material, creating additional relaxation pathways for carrier diffusion. Furthermore, it is shown that room-temperature thermal fluctuations reduce the anisotropic character of charge diffusion along different directions in the anatase crystal and make similar the rates for electron injection from adsorbate states of different character. The reported results are particularly relevant to the understanding of temperature effects on surface charge separation mechanisms in molecular-based photo-optic devices.

Nonadiabatic Molecular Dynamics Study of Electron Transfer from Alizarin to the Hydrated Ti4+ Ion

Ab initio real-time nonadiabatic (NA) molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are performed in order to investigate the photoinduced electron transfer (ET) from alizarin to the hydrated Ti4+ ion and compare it with the ET into bulk TiO2 that forms the basis of the Grätzel type solar cell. The experimental data and electronic structure calculations indicate that the photoexcitation spectra of alizarin attached to either bulk TiO2 or the Ti4+ ion in solution are very similar. In contrast, the NAMD simulations at ambient temperature predict marked differences between the ET dynamics that follow the photoexcitation in the two systems. The simulation of ET between alizarin and the TiO2 surface shows predominantly adiabatic transfer that occurs within 8 fs (Duncan et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 7941), in agreement with the time-resolved experimental data. The simulation of alizarin attached to the hydrated Ti4+ ion reported presently predicts that the ET does occur, but on a slower 30 fs time scale, with a substantially reduced amplitude and by a predominantly NA mechanism. The differences are attributed to the disparity in the acceptor states of bulk TiO2 and the Ti4+ ion in solution. It is shown that the predicted alizarin-Ti4+ ET dynamics can be verified experimentally.

Ab initio nonadiabatic molecular dynamics of the ultrafast electron injection across the alizarin-TiO2 interface

The observed 6-fs photoinduced electron transfer (ET) from the alizarin chromophore into the TiO2 surface is investigated by ab initio nonadiabatic (NA) molecular dynamics in real time and at the atomistic level of detail. The system derives from the dye-sensitized semiconductor Grätzel cell and addresses the problems of an organic/inorganic interface that are commonly encountered in photovoltaics, photochemistry, and molecular electronics. In contrast to the typical Grätzel cell systems, where molecular donors are in resonance with a high density of semiconductor acceptor states, TiO2 sensitized with alizarin presents a novel case in which the molecular photoexcited state is at the edge of the conduction band (CB). The high level ab initio analysis of the optical absorption spectrum supports this observation. Thermal fluctuations of atomic coordinates are particularly important both in generating a nonuniform distribution of photoexcited states and in driving the ET process. The NA simulation resolves the controversy regarding the origin of the ultrafast ET by showing that although ultrafast transfer is possible with the NA mechanism, it proceeds mostly adiabatically in the alizarin-TiO2 system. The simulation indicates that the electron is injected into a localized surface state within 8 fs and spreads into the bulk on a 100-fs or longer time scale. The molecular architecture seen in the alizarin-TiO2 system permits efficient electron injection into the edge of the CB by an adiabatic mechanism without the energy loss associated with injection high into the CB by a NA process.

Electronic Structure and Spectra of Catechol and Alizarin in the Gas Phase and Attached to Titanium

Ab initio electronic structure calculations elucidate the dramatic differences observed in the electronic spectra of the catechol and alizarin molecules upon binding to titanium. Catechol and alizarin are similar chromophores with analogous electronic spectra in the free state. Binding alizarin to titanium red-shifts the spectrum. The binding of catechol to titanium produces a new optically active transition, at the same time preserving the features of the free catechol spectrum. By examining the details of the calculations, we can rationalize the spectral differences in the catechol and alizarin systems by the positioning of the catechol and alizarin pi molecular orbitals relative to the conduction band of TiO(2).

Experimental evidence for sub-3-fs charge transfer from an aromatic adsorbate to a semiconductor

The ultrafast timescale of electron transfer processes is crucial to their role in many biological systems and technological devices. In dye-sensitized solar cells, the electron transfer from photo-excited dye molecules to nanostructured semiconductor substrates needs to be sufficiently fast to compete effectively against loss processes and thus achieve high solar energy conversion efficiencies. Time-resolved laser techniques indicate an upper limit of 20 to 100 femtoseconds for the time needed to inject an electron from a dye into a semiconductor, which corresponds to the timescale on which competing processes such as charge redistribution and intramolecular thermalization of excited states occur. Here we use resonant photoemission spectroscopy, which has previously been used to monitor electron transfer in simple systems with an order-of-magnitude improvement in time resolution, to show that electron transfer from an aromatic adsorbate to a TiO(2) semiconductor surface can occur in less than 3 fs. These results directly confirm that electronic coupling of the aromatic molecule to its substrate is sufficiently strong to suppress competing processes.

Photoinduced ultrafast dye-to-semiconductor electron injection from nonthermalized and thermalized donor states

Electron injection from the transition metal complex Ru(dcbpy)(2)(NCS)(2) (dcbpy = 4,4'-dicarboxy-2,2'-bipyridine) into a titanium dioxide nanocrystalline film occurs on the femto- and picosecond time scales. Here we show that the dominating part of the electron transfer proceeds extremely rapidly from the initially populated, vibronically nonthermalized, singlet excited state, prior to electronic and nuclear relaxation of the molecule. The results are especially relevant to the understanding and design of molecular-based photovoltaic devices and artificial photosynthetic assemblies.