1
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Kim H, Kim J, Ryu KH, Lee J, Kim HJ, Hyun J, Koo J. Embedded Direct Ink Writing 3D Printing of UV Curable Resin/Sepiolite Composites with Nano Orientation. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:23554-23565. [PMID: 37426231 PMCID: PMC10323950 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c01165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Among the various 3D printing methods, direct ink writing (DIW) through extrusion directly affects the microstructure and properties of materials. However, use of nanoparticles at high concentrations is restricted due to difficulties in sufficient dispersion and the deteriorated physical properties of nanocomposites. Thus, although there are many studies on filler alignment with high-viscosity materials with a weight fraction higher than 20 wt %, not much research has been done with low-viscosity nanocomposites with less than 5 phr. Interestingly, the alignment of anisotropic particles improves the physical properties of the nanocomposite at a low concentration of nanoparticles with DIW. The rheological behavior of ink is affected by the alignment of anisotropic sepiolite (SEP) at a low concentration using the embedded 3D printing method, and silicone oil complexed with fumed silica is used as a printing matrix. A significant increase in mechanical properties is expected compared to conventional digital light processing. We clarify the synergistic effect of the SEP alignment in a photocurable nanocomposite material through physical property investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoon Kim
- Lab.
of Adhesion & Bio-Composites, Program in Environmental Materials
Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- Graphy
Inc., Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaehwan Kim
- Program
in Biosystems and Biomaterials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Hyun Ryu
- Lab.
of Adhesion & Bio-Composites, Program in Environmental Materials
Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiho Lee
- Graphy
Inc., Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Joong Kim
- Lab.
of Adhesion & Bio-Composites, Program in Environmental Materials
Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- Research
Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, and Bioresources, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinho Hyun
- Program
in Biosystems and Biomaterials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- Research
Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, and Bioresources, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaseung Koo
- Department
of Organic Materials Engineering, Chungnam
National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic
of Korea
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2
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Rheological behavior of multi-sized SiC inks containing polyelectrolyte complexes specifically for direct ink writing. Ann Ital Chir 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2022.04.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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3
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Li J, van Ewijk G, van Dijken DJ, van der Gucht J, de Vos WM. Single-Step Application of Polyelectrolyte Complex Films as Oxygen Barrier Coatings. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:21844-21853. [PMID: 33913689 PMCID: PMC8153532 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c05031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) films such as polyelectrolyte multilayers have demonstrated excellent oxygen barrier properties, but unfortunately, the established layer-by-layer approaches are laborious and difficult to scale up. Here, we demonstrate a novel single-step approach to produce a PEC film, based on the use of a volatile base. Ammonia was used to adjust the pH of poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) so that direct complexation was avoided when it was mixed with polyethylenimine (PEI). Different charge ratios of homogeneous PEI/PAA solutions were successfully prepared and phase diagrams varying the concentration of ammonia or polyelectrolyte were made to study the phase behavior of PEI, PAA, and ammonia in water. Transparent ∼1 μm thick films were successfully deposited on biaxially orientated polypropylene (BOPP) sheets using a Meyer rod. After casting the films, the decrease in pH, caused by the evaporation of ammonia, triggered the complexation during drying. The oxygen permeation properties of films with different ratios and single polyelectrolytes were tested. All films displayed excellent oxygen barrier properties, with an oxygen permeation below 4 cm3·m-2·day-1·atm-1 (<0.002 barrer) at the optimum ratio of 2:1 PEI/PAA. This ammonia evaporation-induced complexation approach creates a new pathway to prepare PEC films in one simple step while allowing the possibility of recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaying Li
- Membrane
Science and Technology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty
of Science and Technology, University of
Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Gerard van Ewijk
- Akzo
Nobel Decorative Coatings B.V., Rijksstraatweg 31, 2171 AJ Sassenheim, The Netherlands
| | | | - Jasper van der Gucht
- Physical
Chemistry and Soft Matter, Wageningen University
and Research, 6708 WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Wiebe M. de Vos
- Membrane
Science and Technology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty
of Science and Technology, University of
Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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Abstract
During the past 30 years, more and more 3D-printing techniques based on suspensions with specific rheological properties have been innovated and improved. In this review, principles of dispersing and controlling powders for suspension-based 3D printing are summarized. The suspensions for direct ink writing (DIW) are taken as an example for 3D printing. According to the rheological property requirement of suspensions for direct ink writing, the routes on how its rheological properties can be manipulated are summarized and classified into two categories: I. self-solidification route; II. assistant-solidification route. The perspective on the future of 3D-printing techniques based on suspensions is also discussed.
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Naghieh S, Chen X. Printability–A key issue in extrusion-based bioprinting. J Pharm Anal 2021; 11:564-579. [PMID: 34765269 PMCID: PMC8572712 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2021.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Saman Naghieh
- Division of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A9, Canada
- Corresponding author.
| | - Xiongbiao Chen
- Division of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A9, Canada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A9, Canada
- Corresponding author. Division of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A9, Canada.
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Ebers LS, Laborie MP. Direct Ink Writing of Fully Bio-Based Liquid Crystalline Lignin/Hydroxypropyl Cellulose Aqueous Inks: Optimization of Formulations and Printing Parameters. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2020; 3:6897-6907. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c00800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa-Sophie Ebers
- Chair of Forest Biomaterials, University of Freiburg, Werthmannstraße 6, Freiburg im Breisgau 79085, Germany
- Freiburg Materials Research Center, Stefan-Meier-Straße 21, Freiburg im Breisgau 79104, Germany
| | - Marie-Pierre Laborie
- Chair of Forest Biomaterials, University of Freiburg, Werthmannstraße 6, Freiburg im Breisgau 79085, Germany
- Freiburg Materials Research Center, Stefan-Meier-Straße 21, Freiburg im Breisgau 79104, Germany
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7
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Zeeshan F, Madheswaran T, Pandey M, Gorain B. Three-Dimensional (3-D) Printing Technology Exploited for the Fabrication of Drug Delivery Systems. Curr Pharm Des 2019; 24:5019-5028. [PMID: 30621558 DOI: 10.2174/1381612825666190101111525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The conventional dosage forms cannot be administered to all patients because of interindividual variability found among people of different race coupled with different metabolism and cultural necessities. Therefore, to address this global issue there is a growing focus on the fabrication of new drug delivery systems customised to individual needs. Medicinal products printed using 3-D technology are transforming the current medicine business to a plausible alternative of conventional medicines. METHODS The PubMed database and Google scholar were browsed by keywords of 3-D printing, drug delivery, and personalised medicine. The data about techniques employed in the manufacturing of 3-D printed medicines and the application of 3-D printing technology in the fabrication of individualised medicine were collected, analysed and discussed. RESULTS Numerous techniques can fabricate 3-D printed medicines however, printing-based inkjet, nozzle-based deposition and laser-based writing systems are the most popular 3-D printing methods which have been employed successfully in the development of tablets, polypills, implants, solutions, nanoparticles, targeted and topical dug delivery. In addition, the approval of Spritam® containing levetiracetam by FDA as the primary 3-D printed drug product has boosted its importance. However, some drawbacks such as suitability of manufacturing techniques and the available excipients for 3-D printing need to be addressed to ensure simple, feasible, reliable and reproducible 3-D printed fabrication. CONCLUSION 3-D printing is a revolutionary in pharmaceutical technology to cater the present and future needs of individualised medicines. Nonetheless, more investigations are required on its manufacturing aspects in terms cost effectiveness, reproducibility and bio-equivalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farrukh Zeeshan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University (IMU), Kuala Lumpur-57000, Malaysia
| | - Thiagarajan Madheswaran
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University (IMU), Kuala Lumpur-57000, Malaysia
| | - Manisha Pandey
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University (IMU), Kuala Lumpur-57000, Malaysia
| | - Bapi Gorain
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Science, Taylor's University, Selangor-47500, Malaysia
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8
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Camposeo A, Persano L, Farsari M, Pisignano D. Additive Manufacturing: Applications and Directions in Photonics and Optoelectronics. ADVANCED OPTICAL MATERIALS 2019; 7:1800419. [PMID: 30775219 PMCID: PMC6358045 DOI: 10.1002/adom.201800419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The combination of materials with targeted optical properties and of complex, 3D architectures, which can be nowadays obtained by additive manufacturing, opens unprecedented opportunities for developing new integrated systems in photonics and optoelectronics. The recent progress in additive technologies for processing optical materials is here presented, with emphasis on accessible geometries, achievable spatial resolution, and requirements for printable optical materials. Relevant examples of photonic and optoelectronic devices fabricated by 3D printing are shown, which include light-emitting diodes, lasers, waveguides, optical sensors, photonic crystals and metamaterials, and micro-optical components. The potential of additive manufacturing applied to photonics and optoelectronics is enormous, and the field is still in its infancy. Future directions for research include the development of fully printable optical and architected materials, of effective and versatile platforms for multimaterial processing, and of high-throughput 3D printing technologies that can concomitantly reach high resolution and large working volumes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Camposeo
- NESTIstituto Nanoscienze‐CNRPiazza San Silvestro 12I‐56127PisaItaly
| | - Luana Persano
- NESTIstituto Nanoscienze‐CNRPiazza San Silvestro 12I‐56127PisaItaly
| | | | - Dario Pisignano
- NESTIstituto Nanoscienze‐CNRPiazza San Silvestro 12I‐56127PisaItaly
- Dipartimento di FisicaUniversità di PisaLargo B. Pontecorvo 3I‐56127PisaItaly
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9
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Velasco-Hogan A, Xu J, Meyers MA. Additive Manufacturing as a Method to Design and Optimize Bioinspired Structures. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:e1800940. [PMID: 30133816 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201800940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Revised: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) is a current technology undergoing rapid development that is utilized in a wide variety of applications. In the field of biological and bioinspired materials, additive manufacturing is being used to generate intricate prototypes to expand our understanding of the fundamental structure-property relationships that govern nature's spectacular mechanical performance. Herein, recent advances in the use of AM for improving the understanding of the structure-property relationship in biological materials and for the production of bioinspired materials are reviewed. There are four essential components to this work: a) extracting defining characteristics of biological designs, b) designing 3D-printed prototypes, c) performing mechanical testing on 3D-printed prototypes to understand fundamental mechanisms at hand, and d) optimizing design for tailorable performance. It is intended to highlight how the various types of additive manufacturing methods are utilized, to unravel novel discoveries in the field of biological materials. Since AM processing techniques have surpassed antiquated limitations, especially with respect to spatial scales, there has been a surge in their demand as an integral tool for research. In conclusion, current challenges and the technical perspective for further development of bioinspired materials using AM are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jun Xu
- Department of Automotive Engineering, School of Transportation Science and Engineering, Advanced Vehicle Research Center (AVRC), Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Marc A Meyers
- University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
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Rau DA, Herzberger J, Long TE, Williams CB. Ultraviolet-Assisted Direct Ink Write to Additively Manufacture All-Aromatic Polyimides. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:34828-34833. [PMID: 30289680 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b14584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
All-aromatic polyimides have degradation temperatures above 500 °C, excellent mechanical strength, and chemical resistance, and are thus ideal polymers for high-temperature applications. However, their all-aromatic structure impedes additive manufacturing (AM) because of the lack of melt processability and insolubility in organic solvents. Recently, our group demonstrated the design of UV-curable polyamic acids (PAA), the precursor of polyimides, to enable their processing using vat photopolymerization AM. This work leverages our previous synthetic strategy and combines it with the high solution viscosity of nonisolated PAA to yield suitable UV-curable inks for UV-assisted direct ink write (UV-DIW). UV-DIW enabled the design of complex three-dimensional structures comprising of thin features, such as truss structures. Dynamic mechanical analysis of printed and imidized specimens confirmed the thermomechanical properties typical of all-aromatic polyimides, showing a storage modulus above 1 GPa up to 400 °C. Processing polyimide precursors via DIW presents opportunity for multimaterial printing of multifunctional components, such as three-dimensional integrated electronics.
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11
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de Silva UK, Choudhuri K, Bryant-Friedrich AC, Lapitsky Y. Customizing polyelectrolyte complex shapes through photolithographic directed assembly. SOFT MATTER 2018; 14:521-532. [PMID: 29300411 DOI: 10.1039/c7sm02022h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) form through the association of oppositely charged polymers and, due to their attractive properties, such as their mild/simple preparation and stimulus-sensitivity, attract widespread interest. The diverse applications of these materials often require control over PEC shapes. As a versatile approach to achieving such control, we report a new photolithographic directed assembly method for tailoring their structure. This method uses aqueous solutions of a polyelectrolyte, an oppositely charged monomer and a photoinitiator. Irradiation of these mixtures leads to site-specific polymerization of the ionic monomer into a polymer and, through this localized polyanion/polycation mixture formation, results in the assembly of PECs with 2-D and 3-D shapes that reflect the photoirradiation pattern. In addition to generating macroscopic PECs using photomasks, this photodirected PEC assembly method can be combined with multiphoton lithography, which enables the preparation of custom-shaped PECs with microscopic dimensions. Like other PECs, the custom-shaped structures formed through this photodirected assembly approach are stimulus-responsive, and can be made to switch shape or dissolve in response to changes in their external environments. This control over PEC shape and stimulus-sensitivity suggests the photopolymerization-based directed PEC assembly method as a potentially attractive route to stimulus-responsive soft device fabrication (e.g., preparation of intricately shaped, function-specific PECs through photolithographic 3-D printing).
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Affiliation(s)
- Udaka K de Silva
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, USA.
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12
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Sun Y, Peng C, Wang X, Wang R, Yang J, Zhang D. Rheological behavior of Al2O3 suspensions containing polyelectrolyte complexes for direct ink writing. POWDER TECHNOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2017.07.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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13
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Wei H, Zhang Q, Yao Y, Liu L, Liu Y, Leng J. Direct-Write Fabrication of 4D Active Shape-Changing Structures Based on a Shape Memory Polymer and Its Nanocomposite. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:876-883. [PMID: 27997104 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b12824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Four-dimensional (4D) active shape-changing structures based on shape memory polymers (SMPs) and shape memory nanocomposites (SMNCs) are able to be controlled in both space and time and have attracted increasing attention worldwide. However, conventional processing approaches have restricted the design space of such smart structures. Herein, 4D active shape-changing architectures in custom-defined geometries exhibiting thermally and remotely actuated behaviors are achieved by direct-write printing of ultraviolet (UV) cross-linking poly(lactic acid)-based inks. The results reveal that, by the introduction of a UV cross-linking agent, the printed objects present excellent shape memory behavior, which enables three-dimensional (3D)-one-dimensional (1D)-3D, 3D-two-dimensional (2D)-3D, and 3D-3D-3D configuration transformations. More importantly, the addition of iron oxide successfully integrates 4D shape-changing objects with fast remotely actuated and magnetically guidable properties. This research realizes the printing of both SMPs and SMNCs, which present an effective strategy to design 4D active shape-changing architectures with multifunctional properties. This paves the way for the further development of 4D printing, soft robotics, flexible electronics, minimally invasive medicine, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongqiu Wei
- Center for Composite Materials and Structures and ‡Department of Astronautical Science and Mechanics, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT) , Harbin 150080, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiwei Zhang
- Center for Composite Materials and Structures and ‡Department of Astronautical Science and Mechanics, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT) , Harbin 150080, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongtao Yao
- Center for Composite Materials and Structures and ‡Department of Astronautical Science and Mechanics, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT) , Harbin 150080, People's Republic of China
| | - Liwu Liu
- Center for Composite Materials and Structures and ‡Department of Astronautical Science and Mechanics, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT) , Harbin 150080, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanju Liu
- Center for Composite Materials and Structures and ‡Department of Astronautical Science and Mechanics, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT) , Harbin 150080, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinsong Leng
- Center for Composite Materials and Structures and ‡Department of Astronautical Science and Mechanics, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT) , Harbin 150080, People's Republic of China
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14
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Marciel AB, Chung EJ, Brettmann BK, Leon L. Bulk and nanoscale polypeptide based polyelectrolyte complexes. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2017; 239:187-198. [PMID: 27418294 PMCID: PMC5205580 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2016.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2016] [Revised: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) formed using polypeptides have great potential for developing new self-assembled materials, in particular for the development of drug and gene delivery vehicles. This review discusses the latest advancements in PECs formed using polypeptides as the polyanion and/or the polycation in both polyelectrolyte complexes that form bulk materials and block copolymer complexes that form nanoscale assemblies such as PEC micelles and other self-assembled structures. We highlight the importance of secondary structure formation between homogeneous polypeptide complexes, which, unlike PECs formed using other polymers, introduces additional intermolecular interactions in the form of hydrogen bonding, which may influence precipitation over coacervation. However, we still include heterogeneous complexes consisting of polypeptides and other polymers such as nucleic acids, sugars, and other synthetic polyelectrolytes. Special attention is given to complexes formed using nucleic acids as polyanions and polypeptides as polycations and their potential for delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda B Marciel
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Eun Ji Chung
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, United States
| | - Blair K Brettmann
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Lorraine Leon
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States.
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Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies offer an attractive pathway towards the fabrication of functional materials featuring complex heterogeneous architectures inspired by biological systems. In this paper, recent research on the use of AM approaches to program the local chemical composition, structure and properties of biologically-inspired materials is reviewed. A variety of structural motifs found in biological composites have been successfully emulated in synthetic systems using inkjet-based, direct-writing, stereolithography and slip casting technologies. The replication in synthetic systems of design principles underlying such structural motifs has enabled the fabrication of lightweight cellular materials, strong and tough composites, soft robots and autonomously shaping structures with unprecedented properties and functionalities. Pushing the current limits of AM technologies in future research should bring us closer to the manufacturing capabilities of living organisms, opening the way for the digital fabrication of advanced materials with superior performance, lower environmental impact and new functionalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- André R Studart
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland.
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16
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Farahani RD, Dubé M, Therriault D. Three-Dimensional Printing of Multifunctional Nanocomposites: Manufacturing Techniques and Applications. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2016; 28:5794-5821. [PMID: 27135923 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201506215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Revised: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The integration of nanotechnology into three-dimensional printing (3DP) offers huge potential and opportunities for the manufacturing of 3D engineered materials exhibiting optimized properties and multifunctionality. The literature relating to different 3DP techniques used to fabricate 3D structures at the macro- and microscale made of nanocomposite materials is reviewed here. The current state-of-the-art fabrication methods, their main characteristics (e.g., resolutions, advantages, limitations), the process parameters, and materials requirements are discussed. A comprehensive review is carried out on the use of metal- and carbon-based nanomaterials incorporated into polymers or hydrogels for the manufacturing of 3D structures, mostly at the microscale, using different 3D-printing techniques. Several methods, including but not limited to micro-stereolithography, extrusion-based direct-write technologies, inkjet-printing techniques, and popular powder-bed technology, are discussed. Various examples of 3D nanocomposite macro- and microstructures manufactured using different 3D-printing technologies for a wide range of domains such as microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), lab-on-a-chip, microfluidics, engineered materials and composites, microelectronics, tissue engineering, and biosystems are reviewed. Parallel advances on materials and techniques are still required in order to employ the full potential of 3D printing of multifunctional nanocomposites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rouhollah D Farahani
- École de Technologie Supérieure, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Montréal, H3C 1K3, Canada
| | - Martine Dubé
- École de Technologie Supérieure, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Montréal, H3C 1K3, Canada
| | - Daniel Therriault
- Laboratory for Multiscale Mechanics (LM2), Department of Mechanical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, C.P. 6079, Succ. Center-ville, Montréal, H3C 3A7, Canada
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17
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Zhao J, Swartz LA, Lin WF, Schlenoff PS, Frommer J, Schlenoff JB, Liu GY. Three-Dimensional Nanoprinting via Scanning Probe Lithography-Delivered Layer-by-Layer Deposition. ACS NANO 2016; 10:5656-5662. [PMID: 27203853 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b01145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printing has been a very active area of research and development due to its capability to produce 3D objects by design. Miniaturization and improvement of spatial resolution are major challenges in current 3D printing technology development. This work reports advances in miniaturizing 3D printing to the nanometer scale using scanning probe microscopy in conjunction with local material delivery. Using polyelectrolyte polymers and complexes, we have demonstrated the concept of layer-by-layer nanoprinting by design. Nanometer precision is achieved in all three dimensions, as well as in interlayer registry. The approach enables production of designed functional 3D materials with nanometer resolution and, as such, creates a platform for conducting scientific research in designed 3D nanoenvironments as well. In doing so, it enables production of nanomaterials and scaffolds for photonics devices, biomedicine, and tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Jane Frommer
- IBM Almaden Research Center , 650 Harry Road, San Jose, California 95120, United States
| | - Joseph B Schlenoff
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University , Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
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18
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Xu Q, Lv Y, Dong C, Sreeprased TS, Tian A, Zhang H, Tang Y, Yu Z, Li N. Three-dimensional micro/nanoscale architectures: fabrication and applications. NANOSCALE 2015; 7:10883-10895. [PMID: 26059685 DOI: 10.1039/c5nr02048d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) functional solids with programmable hierarchical micro/nanoarchitectures are critical for several fundamental applications, including structural composites, microfluidics, photonics, and tissue engineering. Due to the broad range of application possibilities, a large amount of effort has been devoted to the in-depth exploration of various top-down and bottom-up strategies to construct these complex multi-dimensional structures. In this review, we introduce and discuss selected examples of fabrication techniques which have successfully developed large area, novel 3D functional architectures with exquisite control over their morphology at the nano/subnanolevel. Emphasis is placed on the nanofabrication techniques, their salient features as well as advantages. A summary of the emerging application possibilities of such structures, especially in biomedicine, energy, and device construction, is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, Institute of New Energy, China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing, 102249, China.
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19
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Feldstein MM, Dormidontova EE, Khokhlov AR. Pressure sensitive adhesives based on interpolymer complexes. Prog Polym Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2014.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Farahani RD, Chizari K, Therriault D. Three-dimensional printing of freeform helical microstructures: a review. NANOSCALE 2014; 6:10470-10485. [PMID: 25072812 DOI: 10.1039/c4nr02041c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a fabrication method that enables creation of structures from digital models. Among the different structures fabricated by 3D printing methods, helical microstructures attracted the attention of the researchers due to their potential in different fields such as MEMS, lab-on-a-chip systems, microelectronics and telecommunications. Here we review different types of 3D printing methods capable of fabricating 3D freeform helical microstructures. The techniques including two more common microfabrication methods (i.e., focused ion beam chemical vapour deposition and microstereolithography) and also five methods based on computer-controlled robotic direct deposition of ink filament (i.e., fused deposition modeling, meniscus-confined electrodeposition, conformal printing on a rotating mandrel, UV-assisted and solvent-cast 3D printings) and their advantages and disadvantages regarding their utilization for the fabrication of helical microstructures are discussed. Focused ion beam chemical vapour deposition and microstereolithography techniques enable the fabrication of very precise shapes with a resolution down to ∼100 nm. However, these techniques may have material constraints (e.g., low viscosity) and/or may need special process conditions (e.g., vacuum chamber) and expensive equipment. The five other techniques based on robotic extrusion of materials through a nozzle are relatively cost-effective, however show lower resolution and less precise features. The popular fused deposition modeling method offers a wide variety of printable materials but the helical microstructures manufactured featured a less precise geometry compared to the other printing methods discussed in this review. The UV-assisted and the solvent-cast 3D printing methods both demonstrated high performance for the printing of 3D freeform structures such as the helix shape. However, the compatible materials used in these methods were limited to UV-curable polymers and polylactic acid (PLA), respectively. Meniscus-confined electrodeposition is a flexible, low cost technique that is capable of fabricating 3D structures both in nano- and microscales including freeform helical microstructures (down to few microns) under room conditions using metals. However, the metals suitable for this technique are limited to those that can be electrochemically deposited with the use of an electrolyte solution. The highest precision on the helix geometry was achieved using the conformal printing on a rotating mandrel. This method offers the lowest shape deformation after printing but requires more tools (e.g., mandrel, motor) and the printed structure must be separated from the mandrel. Helical microstructures made of multifunctional materials (e.g., carbon nanotube nanocomposites, metallic coated polymer template) were used in different technological applications such as strain/load sensors, cell separators and micro-antennas. These innovative 3D microsystems exploiting the unique helix shape demonstrated their potential for better performance and more compact microsystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Farahani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Laboratory for Multiscale Mechanics (LM2), École Polytechnique de Montréal, C.P. 6079, Succ. Centre-ville, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada.
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Moulton SE, Wallace GG. 3-dimensional (3D) fabricated polymer based drug delivery systems. J Control Release 2014; 193:27-34. [PMID: 25020039 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Revised: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 07/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Drug delivery from 3-dimensional (3D) structures is a rapidly growing area of research. It is essential to achieve structures wherein drug stability is ensured, the drug loading capacity is appropriate and the desired controlled release profile can be attained. Attention must also be paid to the development of appropriate fabrication machinery that allows 3D drug delivery systems (DDS) to be produced in a simple, reliable and reproducible manner. The range of fabrication methods currently being used to form 3D DDSs include electrospinning (solution and melt), wet-spinning and printing (3-dimensional). The use of these techniques enables production of DDSs from the macro-scale down to the nano-scale. This article reviews progress in these fabrication techniques to form DDSs that possess desirable drug delivery kinetics for a wide range of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon E Moulton
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, Australia; University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Gordon G Wallace
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, Australia; University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
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Guo SZ, Heuzey MC, Therriault D. Properties of polylactide inks for solvent-cast printing of three-dimensional freeform microstructures. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2014; 30:1142-1150. [PMID: 24410099 DOI: 10.1021/la4036425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Solvent-cast printing is a highly versatile microfabrication technique that can be used to construct various geometries such as filaments, towers, scaffolds, and freeform circular spirals by the robotic deposition of a polymer solution ink onto a moving stage. In this work, we have performed a comprehensive characterization of the solvent-cast printing process using polylactide (PLA) solutions by analyzing the flow behavior of the solutions, the solvent evaporation kinetics, and the effect of process-related parameters on the crystallization of the extruded filaments. Rotational rheometry at low to moderate shear rates showed a nearly Newtonian behavior of the PLA solutions, while capillary flow analysis based on process-related data indicated shear thinning at high shear rates. Solvent vaporization tests suggested that the internal diffusion of the solvent through the filaments controlled the solvent removal of the extrudates. Different kinds of three-dimensional (3D) structures including a layer-by-layer tower, nine-layer scaffold, and freeform spiral were fabricated, and a processing map was given to show the proper ranges of process-related parameters (i.e., polymer content, applied pressure, nozzle diameter, and robot velocity) for the different geometries. The results of differential scanning calorimetry revealed that slow solvent evaporation could increase the ability of PLA to complete its crystallization process during the filament drying stage. The method developed here offers a new perspective for manufacturing complex structures from polymer solutions and provides guidelines to optimize the various parameters for 3D geometry fabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang-Zhuang Guo
- Laboratory of Multiscale Mechanics, Mechanical Engineering Department Center for Applied Research on Polymers and composites (CREPEC), École Polytechnique de Montréal , C.P. 6079, succ. Centre-Ville, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada
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Şakar-Deliormanli A. Effect of Cationic Polyelectrolyte on the Flow Behavior of Hydroxypropyl Methyl Cellulose/Polyacrylic Acid Interpolymer Complexes. J MACROMOL SCI B 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/00222348.2013.810007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aylin Şakar-Deliormanli
- a Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Center for Bone and Tissue Repair and Regeneration , Missouri University of Science and Technology , Rolla , Missouri , USA
- b Materials Engineering Department , Celal Bayar University , Muradiye , Manisa , Turkey
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Gao C, Rahaman MN, Gao Q, Teramoto A, Abe K. Robotic deposition and
in vitro
characterization of 3D gelatin−bioactive glass hybrid scaffolds for biomedical applications. J Biomed Mater Res A 2012; 101:2027-37. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.34496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2012] [Revised: 10/16/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chunxia Gao
- Department of Functional Polymer Science, Faculty of Textile Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Ueda 386‐8567, Japan
| | - Mohamed N. Rahaman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409‐0340
| | - Qiang Gao
- Department of Functional Polymer Science, Faculty of Textile Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Ueda 386‐8567, Japan
| | - Akira Teramoto
- Department of Functional Polymer Science, Faculty of Textile Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Ueda 386‐8567, Japan
| | - Koji Abe
- Department of Functional Polymer Science, Faculty of Textile Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Ueda 386‐8567, Japan
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Hoque ME, Hutmacher DW, Feng W, Li S, Huang MH, Vert M, Wong YS. Fabrication using a rapid prototyping system and in vitro characterization of PEG-PCL-PLA scaffolds for tissue engineering. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2012; 16:1595-610. [PMID: 16366339 DOI: 10.1163/156856205774576709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In the field of tissue engineering new polymers are needed to fabricate scaffolds with specific properties depending on the targeted tissue. This work aimed at designing and developing a 3D scaffold with variable mechanical strength, fully interconnected porous network, controllable hydrophilicity and degradability. For this, a desktop-robot-based melt-extrusion rapid prototyping technique was applied to a novel tri-block co-polymer, namely poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(epsilon-caprolactone)-block-poly(DL-lactide), PEG-PCL-P(DL)LA. This co-polymer was melted by electrical heating and directly extruded out using computer-controlled rapid prototyping by means of compressed purified air to build porous scaffolds. Various lay-down patterns (0/30/60/90/120/150 degrees, 0/45/90/135 degrees, 0/60/120 degrees and 0/90 degrees) were produced by using appropriate positioning of the robotic control system. Scanning electron microscopy and micro-computed tomography were used to show that 3D scaffold architectures were honeycomb-like with completely interconnected and controlled channel characteristics. Compression tests were performed and the data obtained agreed well with the typical behavior of a porous material undergoing deformation. Preliminary cell response to the as-fabricated scaffolds has been studied with primary human fibroblasts. The results demonstrated the suitability of the process and the cell biocompatibility of the polymer, two important properties among the many required for effective clinical use and efficient tissue-engineering scaffolding.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Hoque
- Laboratory for Concurrent Engineering and Logistics LCEL, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260, Republic of Singapore
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Arpin KA, Mihi A, Johnson HT, Baca AJ, Rogers JA, Lewis JA, Braun PV. Multidimensional architectures for functional optical devices. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2010; 22:1084-1101. [PMID: 20401933 DOI: 10.1002/adma.200904096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Materials exhibiting multidimensional structure with characteristic lengths ranging from the nanometer to the micrometer scale have extraordinary potential for emerging optical applications based on the regulation of light-matter interactions via the mesoscale organization of matter. As the structural dimensionality increases, the opportunities for controlling light-matter interactions become increasingly diverse and powerful. Recent advances in multidimensional structures have been demonstrated that serve as the basis for three-dimensional photonic-bandgap materials, metamaterials, optical cloaks, highly efficient low-cost solar cells, and chemical and biological sensors. In this Review, the state-of-the-art design and fabrication of multidimensional architectures for functional optical devices are covered and the next steps for this important field are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin A Arpin
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory 104 South Goodwin Ave Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Xu M, Lewis JA. Phase behavior and rheological properties of polyamine-rich complexes for direct-write assembly. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2007; 23:12752-12759. [PMID: 17973413 DOI: 10.1021/la702249u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Polyamine-rich complexes are developed for microscale patterning of planar and 3-D structures by direct ink writing. The complexes are formed by mixing poly(allylamine) hydrochloride and poly(acrylic acid) sodium salt in water in a nonstoichiometric ratio. Their phase behavior, rheological properties, and coagulation behavior in alcohol-water reservoirs are characterized. Direct comparisons are made between these complexes, which are based on mixtures of linear polyelectrolytes, and prior observations of complexes composed of linear and highly branched chains. [Gratson, G. M.; Xu, M.; Lewis, J. A. Nature 2004, 428, 386. Gratson, G. M.; Lewis, J. A. Langmuir 2005, 21, 457-464.] The optimal polyamine-rich ink and reservoir compositions are identified for direct-write assembly of wavy, gradient, and 3-D microperiodic architectures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjie Xu
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Department, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Stewart ME, Motala MJ, Yao J, Thompson LB, Nuzzo RG. Unconventional methods for forming nanopatterns. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1243/17403499jnn103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Nanostructured materials have become an increasingly important theme in research, in no small part due to the potential impacts this science holds for applications in technology, including such notable areas as sensors, medicine, and high-performance integrated circuits. Conventional methods, such as the top-down approaches of projection lithography and scanning beam lithography, have been the primary means for patterning materials at the nanoscale. This article provides an overview of unconventional methods - both top-down and bottom-up approaches - for generating nanoscale patterns in a variety of materials, including methods that can be applied to fragile molecular systems that are difficult to pattern using conventional lithographic techniques. The promise, recent progress, advantages, limitations, and challenges to future development associated with each of these unconventional lithographic techniques will be discussed with consideration given to their potential for use in large-scale manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. E. Stewart
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - M. J. Motala
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Jimin Yao
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - L. B. Thompson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - R. G. Nuzzo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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Bharadwaj S, Montazeri R, Haynie DT. Direct determination of the thermodynamics of polyelectrolyte complexation and implications thereof for electrostatic layer-by-layer assembly of multilayer films. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2006; 22:6093-101. [PMID: 16800664 DOI: 10.1021/la0518391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Interpolyelectrolyte complex (IPEC) formation between poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) and poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) has been studied over a range of ionic strengths by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), turbidity titration, and electrostatic layer-by-layer assembly (ELBL). The results indicate that IPEC formation of PSS/PAH in aqueous solution is predominantly entropy-driven. The thermodynamic parameters suggest the formation of different types of complexes and aggregates due to salt-induced conformational changes in the polyelectrolyte conformation. Differences in polyelectrolyte behavior in the different salt-concentration regimes are described in terms of changes in the Debye screening length of the polyelectrolytes. The relationship of the results to the effect of salt concentration on the assembly of polyelectrolyte multilayer films (PEMs) is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satish Bharadwaj
- Biomedical Engineering, Physics, and Bionanosystems Engineering Laboratory, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, Louisiana 71272, USA
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Xu M, Gratson GM, Duoss EB, Shepherd RF, Lewis JA. Biomimetic silicification of 3D polyamine-rich scaffolds assembled by direct ink writing. SOFT MATTER 2006; 2:205-209. [PMID: 32646146 DOI: 10.1039/b517278k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We report a method for creating synthetic diatom frustules the biomimetic silicification of polyamine-rich scaffolds assembled by direct ink writing (DIW) [G. M. Gratson, M. Xu and J. A. Lewis, , 2004, , 386, ]. A concentrated polyamine-rich ink is robotically deposited in a complex 3D pattern that mimics the shape of naturally occurring diatom frustules, Ehrenberg (triangular-shaped) and (web-shaped). Upon exposing these scaffolds to silicic acid under ambient conditions, silica formation occurs in a shape-preserving fashion. Our method yields 3D inorganic-organic hybrids structures that may find potential application as templates for photonic materials, novel membranes, or catalyst supports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjie Xu
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA61801.
| | - Gregory M Gratson
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA61801.
| | - Eric B Duoss
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA61801.
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA61801.
| | - Jennifer A Lewis
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA61801. and Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA61801.
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