Microelectrochemical modulation of micropatterned cellular environments

Engineering systems for the generation of patterned co-cultures for controlling cell-cell interactions

BACKGROUND

Inside the body, cells lie in direct contact or in close proximity to other cell types in a tightly controlled architecture that often regulates the resulting tissue function. Therefore, tissue engineering constructs that aim to reproduce the architecture and the geometry of tissues will benefit from methods of controlling cell-cell interactions with microscale resolution.

SCOPE OF THE REVIEW

We discuss the use of microfabrication technologies for generating patterned co-cultures. In addition, we categorize patterned co-culture systems by cell type and discuss the implications of regulating cell-cell interactions in the resulting biological function of the tissues.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Patterned co-cultures are a useful tool for fabricating tissue engineered constructs and for studying cell-cell interactions in vitro, because they can be used to control the degree of homotypic and heterotypic cell-cell contact. In addition, this approach can be manipulated to elucidate important factors involved in cell-matrix interactions.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Patterned co-culture strategies hold significant potential to develop biomimetic structures for tissue engineering. It is expected that they would create opportunities to develop artificial tissues in the future. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Nanotechnologies - Emerging Applications in Biomedicine.

Engineering the extracellular environment: Strategies for building 2D and 3D cellular structures

Cell fate is regulated by extracellular environmental signals. Receptor specific interaction of the cell with proteins, glycans, soluble factors as well as neighboring cells can steer cells towards proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis or migration. In this review, approaches to build cellular structures by engineering aspects of the extracellular environment are described. These methods include non-specific modifications to control the wettability and stiffness of surfaces using self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) and polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs) as well as methods where the temporal activation and spatial distribution of adhesion ligands is controlled. Building on these techniques, construction of two-dimensional cell sheets using temperature sensitive polymers or electrochemical dissolution is described together with current applications of these grafts in the clinical arena. Finally, methods to pattern cells in three-dimensions as well as to functionalize the 3D environment with biologic motifs take us one step closer to being able to engineer multicellular tissues and organs.

In vitro model on glass surfaces for complex interactions between different types of cells

This report establishes an in vitro model on glass surfaces for patterning multiple types of cells to simulate cell-cell interactions in vivo. The model employs a microfluidic system and poly(ethylene glycol)-terminated oxysilane (PEG-oxysilane) to modify glass surfaces in order to resist cell adhesion. The system allows the selective confinement of different types of cells to realize complete confinement, partial confinement, and no confinement of three types of cells on glass surfaces. The model was applied to study intercellular interactions among human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), PLA 801 C and PLA801 D cells.

Patterning of polystyrene by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Biological applications to cell adhesion

Polystyrene surfaces may be patterned by Ag(II), NO(3)(•), and OH(•) electrogenerated at the tip of a scanning electrochemical microscope. These electrogenerated reagents lead to local surface oxidation of the polymer. The most efficient surface treatment is obtained with Ag(II). The patterns are evidenced by XPS and IR and also by the surface wettability contrast between the hydrophobic virgin surface and the hydrophilic pattern. Such Ag(II) treatment of a polystyrene Petri dish generates discriminative surfaces able to promote or disfavor the adhesion of proteins and also the adhesion and growth of adherent cells. The process is also successfully applied to a cyclo-olefin copolymer and should be suitable to pattern any hydrogenated polymer.

Microfabrication of patterns of adherent marine bacterium Phaeobacter inhibens using soft lithography and scanning probe lithography

Two lithographic approaches have been explored for the microfabrication of cellular patterns based on the attachment of marine bacterium Phaeobacter inhibens strain T5. Strain T5 produces a new antibiotic that makes this bacterium potentially interesting for the pharmaceutical market and as a probiotic organism in aquacultures and in controlling biofouling. The microcontact printing (microCP) method is based on the micropatterning of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) terminated with adhesive end groups such as CH(3) and COOH and nonadhesive groups (e.g., short oligomers of ethylene glycol (OEG)) to form micropatterned substrates for the adhesion of strain T5. The scanning probe lithographic method is based on the surface modification of OEG SAM by using a microelectrode, the probe of a scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM). Oxidizing agents (e.g., Br(2)) were electrogenerated in situ at the microelectrodes from Br(-) in aqueous solution to remove OEG SAMs locally, which allows the subsequent adsorption of bacteria. Various micropatterns of bacteria could be formed in situ on the substrate without a prefabricated template. The fabricated cellular patterns may be applied to a variety of marine biological studies that require the analysis of biofilm formation, cell-cell and cell-surface interactions, and cell-based biosensors and bioelectronics.

Structural analysis of HS(CD(2))(12)(O-CH(2)-CH(2))(6)OCH(3) monolayers on gold by means of polarization modulation infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy. progress of the reaction with bromine

A self-assembled monolayer (SAM) on gold was formed with specifically perdeuterated hexaethylene glycol-terminated alkanethiol HS(CD(2))(12)(O-CH(2)-CH(2))(6)OCH(3) (D-OEG). The structure of the d-alkane and the oligoethylene glycol (OEG) parts of the molecule in a SAM was studied by means of polarization modulation infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy. The D-OEG monolayers are highly ordered and exist in a crystalline phase. The d-alkane chain adopts an all-trans conformation. Both, the d-alkane chain and long axis of the OEG part make an angle of 26.0 degrees +/- 1.5 degrees with respect to the surface normal, a value characteristic for the tilt of solid n-alkane thiols in the SAMs on Au. The positions of nu(as)(COC) and CH(2) wagging and rocking modes indicate a helical arrangement of the OEG chains. The D-OEG SAMs were exposed to 25 muM Br(2) in two ways: (i) by immersion into the Br(2) solution and (ii) in the galvanic cell Au|D-OEG SAM|25 muM Br(2) + 0.1 M Na(2)SO(4)|| 50 muM KBr + 0.1 M Na(2)SO(4)|Au. In the galvanic cell, the oxidant (Br(2)) is scavenged by a heterogeneous electron transfer reaction, slowing the reaction of D-OEG with Br(2). The slow progress of the reaction with Br(2) allowed us to draw conclusions about molecular rearrangements taking place during this reaction. The reaction with Br(2) starts on boundaries and/or defects present in the SAM. First, at the defect place, the alpha-C atom of the OEG chain reacts with Br(2) and the OEG part of the molecule is removed from the monolayer. In consequence an increase in disorder in the OEG part of the SAM is observed. The same mechanism of the reaction with Br(2) is applied for the d-dodecane alkanethiol part of the molecule. This reaction is slow, thus the order and the tilt of the hydrocarbon chain changes only a little during the reaction time.

Investigation of Localized Catalytic and Electrocatalytic Processes and Corrosion Reactions with Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy (SECM)

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) has developed into a very versatile tool for the investigation of solid-liquid, liquid-liquid and liquid-gas interfaces. The arrangement of an ultramicroelectrode (UME) in close proximity to the interface under study allows the application of a large variety of different experimental schemes. The most important have been named feedback mode, generation-collection mode, redox competition mode and direct mode. Quantitative descriptions are available for the UME signal, depending on different sample properties and experimental variables. Therefore, SECM has been established as an indispensible tool in many areas of fundamental electrochemical research. Currently, it also spreads as an important new method to solve more applied problems, in which inhomogeneous current distributions are typically observed on different length scales. Prominent examples include devices for electrochemical energy conversion such as fuel cells and batteries as well as localized corrosion phenomena. However, the direct local investigation of such systems is often impossible. Instead, suitable reaction schemes, sample environments, model samples and even new operation modes have to be introduced in order to obtain results that are relevant to the practical application. This review outlines and compares the theoretical basis of the different SECM working modes and reviews the application in the area of electrochemical energy conversion and localized corrosion with a special emphasis on the problems encountered when working with practical samples.

Electro-oxidative nanopatterning of silane monolayers on boron-doped diamond electrodes

Oxidized boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes were coated with a monolayer of n-octadecyltrichlorosilane as well as of other silanes. Scanning force microscopy was applied to pattern these monolayers, utilizing doped diamond-coated conductive probes. Patterns were generated on the nanometer scale, and conditions for the patterning process were quantified with regard to humidity and potential bias. It was observed that a sample bias of 3-3.5 V and a relative humidity >70% are necessary to generate reproducible and stable patterns. At potentials and relative humidities below these values, no or incomplete removal of the monolayer occurred. The results show that electro-oxidative patterning is an expedient way for the generation of nanostructures on chemically modified BDD.