A Biodegradable and Cross-Linkable Multiblock Copolymer Consisting of Poly(propylene fumarate) and Poly(ε-caprolactone): Synthesis, Characterization, and Physical Properties

Opposite Mechanical Preference of Bone/Nerve Regeneration in 3D-Printed Bioelastomeric Scaffolds/Conduits Consistently Correlated with YAP-Mediated Stem Cell Osteo/Neuro-Genesis

To systematically unveil how substrate stiffness, a critical factor in directing cell fate through mechanotransduction, correlates with tissue regeneration, novel biodegradable and photo-curable poly(trimethylene carbonate) fumarates (PTMCFs) for fabricating elastomeric 2D substrates and 3D bone scaffolds/nerve conduits, are presented. These substrates and structures with adjustable stiffness serve as a unique platform to evaluate how this mechanical cue affects the fate of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) and hard/soft tissue regeneration in rat femur bone defect and sciatic nerve transection models; whilst, decoupling from topographical and chemical cues. In addition to a positive relationship between substrate stiffness (tensile modulus: 90-990 kPa) and hMSC adhesion, spreading, and proliferation mediated through Yes-associated protein (YAP), opposite mechanical preference is revealed in the osteogenesis and neurogenesis of hMSCs as they are significantly enhanced on the stiff and compliant substrates, respectively. In vivo tissue regeneration demonstrates the same trend: bone regeneration prefers the stiffer scaffolds; while, nerve regeneration prefers the more compliant conduits. Whole-transcriptome analysis further shows that upregulation of Rho GTPase activity and the downstream genes in the compliant group promote nerve repair, providing critical insight into the design strategies of biomaterials for stem cell regulation and hard/soft tissue regeneration through mechanotransduction.

Spinal fusion of biodegradable poly(propylene fumarate) and poly(propylene fumarate-co-caprolactone) copolymers in rabbits

Background

Autologous bone grafts are currently the standard in orthopedic surgery despite limited donor sources and the prevalence of donor site morbidity. Other alternatives such as allografts are more readily available than autografts but have lower rates of graft incorporation.

Methods

Here, we propose a novel graft alternative consisting of an injectable poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and poly(propylene fumarate-co-caprolactone) P(PF-co-CL) copolymer with a recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2)/vascular epithelial growth factor (VEGF) release system accompanied by hydroxyapatite (HA). The efficacy of scaffold formulations was studied using a standard, bilateral, L-level (L5-L6) posterolateral transverse spinal fusion using New Zealand white rabbits. Rabbits were divided into 4 experimental groups: group I, negative control; group II, autograft (positive control); group III, injectable PPF scaffold with rhBMP-2/VEGF release system and HA; group IV, injectable P(PF-co-CL)scaffold with rhBMP-2/VEGF release system and HA. Spines were harvested at 6 weeks and 12 weeks after surgery, and spinal fusions were assessed using manual palpation, radiographic analysis, micro-computed tomography (μCT) assessment, and histologic analysis.

Results

Of the 4 experimental groups, the injectable P(PF-co-CL) scaffold displayed superior initial strength and faster degradation than scaffolds constructed from PPF alone and facilitated the fusion of lateral processes in the rabbit standard posterolateral spinal fusion model. The results obtained from manual palpation, radiology, and μCT showed no difference between the P(PF-co-CL) group and the PPF group. However, histologic sections showed more osteogenesis with the new injectable P(PF-co-CL) scaffold.

Conclusion

Injectable P(PF-co-CL) polymers showed promising spine fusion abilities in rabbits after 12 weeks of posterolateral implantation.

Fabrication and examination of polyorganophosphazene/polycaprolactone-based scaffold with degradation, in vitro and in vivo behaviors suitable for tissue engineering applications

The present study aimed to synthesis a proper scaffold consisting of hydroxylated polyphosphazene and polycaprolactone (PCL), focusing on its potential use in tissue engineering applications. The first grafting of PCL to poly(propylene glycol)phosphazene (PPGP) was performed via ROP of ε-caprolactone, whereas PPGP act as a multisite macroinitiator. The prepared poly(propylene glycol phosphazene)-graft-polycaprolactone (PPGP-g-PCL) were evaluated by essential tests, including NMR, FTIR, FESEM-EDS, TGA, DSC and contact angle measurement. The quantum calculations were performed to investigate molecular geometry and its energy, and HOMO and LUMO of PPGP-g-PCL in Materials Studio2017. MD simulations were applied to describe the interaction of the polymer on phospholipid membrane (POPC128b) in Material Studio2017. The C2C12 and L929 cells were used to probe the cell-surface interactions on synthetic polymers surfaces. Cells adhesion and proliferation onto scaffolds were evaluated using FESEM and MTT assay. In vitro analysis indicated enhanced cell adhesion, high proliferation rate, and excellent viability on scaffolds for both cell types. The polymer was further tested via intraperitoneal implantation in mice that showed no evidence of adverse inflammation and necrosis at the site of the scaffold implantation; in return, osteogenesis, new-formed bone and in vivo degradation of the scaffold were observed. Herein, in vitro and in vivo assessments confirm PPGP-g-PCL, as an appropriate scaffold for tissue engineering applications.

Peripheral Nerve Conduit: Materials and Structures

Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) are the most common injury types to affect the nervous system. Restoration of nerve function after PNI is a challenging medical issue. Extended gaps in transected peripheral nerves are only repaired using autologous nerve grafting. This technique, however, in which nerve tissue is harvested from a donor site and grafted onto a recipient site in the same body, has many limitations and disadvantages. Recent studies have revealed artificial nerve conduits as a promising alternative technique to substitute autologous nerves. This Review summarizes different types of artificial nerve grafts used to repair peripheral nerve injuries. These include synthetic and natural polymers with biological factors. Then, desirable properties of nerve guides are discussed based on their functionality and effectiveness. In the final part of this Review, fabrication methods and commercially available nerve guides are described.

Poly(propylene fumarate)-based materials: Synthesis, functionalization, properties, device fabrication and biomedical applications

Poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) is a biodegradable polymer that has been investigated extensively over the last three decades. It has led many scientists to synthesize and fabricate a variety of PPF-based materials for biomedical applications due to its controllable mechanical properties, tunable degradation and biocompatibility. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the progress made in improving PPF synthesis, resin formulation, crosslinking, device fabrication and post polymerization modification. Further, we highlight the influence of these parameters on biodegradation, biocompatibility, and their use in a number of regenerative medicine applications, especially bone tissue engineering. In particular, the use of 3D printing techniques for the fabrication of PPF-based scaffolds is extensively reviewed. The recent invention of a ring-opening polymerization method affords precise control of PPF molecular mass, molecular mass distribution (Ɖ_M) and viscosity. Low Ɖ_M facilitates time-certain resorption of 3D printed structures. Novel post-polymerization and post-printing functionalization methods have accelerated the expansion of biomedical applications that utilize PPF-based materials. Finally, we shed light on evolving uses of PPF-based materials for orthopedics/bone tissue engineering and other biomedical applications, including its use as a hydrogel for bioprinting.

Effect of Domain Structure of Segmented Poly(urethane-imide) Membranes with Polycaprolactone Soft Blocks on Dehydration of n-Propanol via Pervaporation

Segmented poly(urethane-imide)s (PUIs) were synthesized by polyaddition reaction and applied for preparation of membranes. Tolylene-2,4-diisocyanate, pyromellitic dianhydride, and m-phenylenediamine for chain extension were used to form hard aromatic blocks. Polycaprolactone diols with molecular weights equal to 530 and 2000 g mol-1 were chosen as soft segments. The effect of the length of soft segments on the structure, morphology, and transport properties of segmented poly(urethane-imide) membranes were studied using atomic force microscopy, small-angle and wide-angle X-ray scattering, and pervaporation experiments. It was found that a copolymer with a shorter soft segment (530 g mol-1) consists of soft domains in a hard matrix, while the introduction of polycaprolactone blocks with higher molecular weight (2000 g mol-1) leads to the formation of hard domains in a soft matrix. Additionally, the introduction of hard segments prevents crystallization of polycaprolactone. Transport properties of membranes based on segmented PUIs containing soft segments of different length were tested for pervaporation of a model mixture of propanol/water with 20 wt % H₂O content. It was found that a membrane based on segmented PUIs containing longer soft segments demonstrates higher flux (8.8 kg μm m-2 h-1) and selectivity (179) toward water in comparison with results for pure polycaprolactone reported in literature. The membrane based on segmented PUIs with 530 g mol-1 soft segment has a lower flux (5.1 kg μm m-2 h-1) and higher selectivity (437).

Poly(Propylene Fumarate)-Hydroxyapatite Nanocomposite Can Be a Suitable Candidate for Cervical Cages

A wide range of materials have been used for the development of intervertebral cages. Poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) has been shown to be an excellent biomaterial with characteristics similar to trabecular bone. Hydroxyapatite (HA) has been shown to enhance biocompatibility and mechanical properties of PPF. The purpose of this study was to characterize the effect of PPF augmented with HA (PPF:HA) and evaluate the feasibility of this material for the development of cervical cages. PPF was synthesized and combined with HA at PPF:HA wt:wt ratios of 100:0, 80:20, 70:30, and 60:40. Molds were fabricated for testing PPF:HA bulk materials in compression, bending, tension, and hardness according to ASTM standards, and also for cage preparation. The cages were fabricated with and without holes and with porosity created by salt leaching. The samples as well as the cages were mechanically tested using a materials testing frame. All elastic moduli as well as the hardness increased significantly by adding HA to PPF (p < 0.0001). The 20 wt % HA increased the moduli significantly compared to pure PPF (p < 0.0001). Compressive stiffness of all cages also increased with the addition of HA. HA increased the failure load of the porous cages significantly (p = 0.0018) compared with nonporous cages. PPF:HA wt:wt ratio of 80:20 proved to be significantly stiffer and stronger than pure PPF. The current results suggest that this polymeric composite can be a suitable candidate material for intervertebral body cages.

Multidimensional mass spectrometry characterization of isomeric biodegradable polyesters

The biodegradable polyester copolymer poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) is increasingly utilized in bone tissue engineering studies due to its suitability as inert cross-linkable scaffold material. The well-defined poly(propylene fumarate) oligomers needed for this purpose are synthesized by post-polymerization isomerization of poly(propylene maleate), which is prepared by ring opening polymerization of maleic anhydride and propylene oxide. In this study, multidimensional mass spectrometry methodologies, interfacing matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization and electrospray ionization with mass analysis, tandem mass spectrometry fragmentation and/or ion mobility mass spectrometry, have been employed to characterize the composition, end groups, chain connectivity and isomeric purity of the isomeric copolyesters poly(propylene maleate)and poly(propylene fumarate). It is demonstrated that the polymerization catalyst is incorporated into the polymer chain (as the initiating chain end) and that the poly(propylene maleate) to poly(propylene fumarate) isomerization using an amine base proceeds with quantitative yield. Hydrolytic degradation is shown not to alter the double bond geometry of the poly(propylene fumarate) or poly(propylene maleate) chains.

Novel porous poly(propylene fumarate-co-caprolactone) scaffolds fabricated by thermally induced phase separation

Scaffolds with porous structures are highly applicable for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. In the present study, 3-dimensional poly(propylene fumarate-co-caprolactone) [P(PF-co-CL)] scaffolds were fabricated from a P(PF-co-CL)-dioxane-water ternary system through thermally induced phase separation (TIPS). Cloud points of P(PF-co-CL) in dioxane-water solutions increased with increased solute concentration, but increased dioxane composition decreased cloud point. Among 3 polymer concentrations (4, 8, and 12 wt%), 8 wt% P(PF-co-CL) scaffolds exhibited the best pore interconnectivity, with large, regular sized pores. Scaffolds were formed in 3 solutions with different dioxane-water ratios (74/26, 78/22, and 82/18 wt/wt); the 78/22 wt/wt scaffold had finger-shaped patterns with better interconnectivity than scaffolds from the other two ratios. Higher dioxane-water ratios resulted in a larger contact angle and thus less wettability for the fabricated scaffold, while scaffolds fabricated from higher concentrations of P(PF-co-CL) or high dioxane-water ratios had better biomineralization after soaking in simulated body fluid. In vitro cell viability testing showed the scaffolds had good biocompatibility with both bone and nerve cells. The results indicate that the polymer concentration and solvents ratio significantly affect the formation of porous structures, and optimum processing parameters were found to be 8% polymer concentration and 22% to 24% water content. These porous P(PF-co-CL) scaffolds fabricated via TIPS may be useful in various tissue engineering applications © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 105A: 226-235, 2017.

Biomedical Applications of Biodegradable Polyesters

The focus in the field of biomedical engineering has shifted in recent years to biodegradable polymers and, in particular, polyesters. Dozens of polyester-based medical devices are commercially available, and every year more are introduced to the market. The mechanical performance and wide range of biodegradation properties of this class of polymers allow for high degrees of selectivity for targeted clinical applications. Recent research endeavors to expand the application of polymers have been driven by a need to target the general hydrophobic nature of polyesters and their limited cell motif sites. This review provides a comprehensive investigation into advanced strategies to modify polyesters and their clinical potential for future biomedical applications.

A star-shaped amphiphilic block copolymer with dual responses: synthesis, crystallization, self-assembly, redox and LCST–UCST thermoresponsive transition

The micelles/aggregates that were self-assembled from a star-shaped copolymer presented redox-responsive behaviour and LCST–UCST thermoresponsive transition.

Effect of calcium phosphate coating and rhBMP-2 on bone regeneration in rabbit calvaria using poly(propylene fumarate) scaffolds

Various calcium phosphate based coatings have been evaluated for better bony integration of metallic implants and are currently being investigated to improve the surface bioactivity of polymeric scaffolds. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of calcium phosphate coating and simultaneous delivery of recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) on the in vivo bone regeneration capacity of biodegradable, porous poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) scaffolds. PPF scaffolds were coated with three different calcium phosphate formulations: magnesium-substituted β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCMP), carbonated hydroxyapatite (synthetic bone mineral, SBM) and biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP). In vivo bone regeneration was evaluated by implantation of scaffolds in a critical-sized rabbit calvarial defect loaded with different doses of rhBMP-2. Our data demonstrated that scaffolds with each of the calcium phosphate coatings were capable of sustaining rhBMP-2 release and retained an open porous structure. After 6weeks of implantation, micro-computed tomography revealed that the rhBMP-2 dose had a significant effect on bone formation within the scaffolds and that the SBM-coated scaffolds regenerated significantly greater bone than BCP-coated scaffolds. Mechanical testing of the defects also indicated restoration of strength in the SBM and β-TCMP with rhBMP-2 delivery. Histology results demonstrated bone growth immediately adjacent to the scaffold surface, indicating good osteointegration and osteoconductivity for coated scaffolds. The results obtained in this study suggest that the coated scaffold platform demonstrated a synergistic effect between calcium phosphate coatings and rhBMP-2 delivery and may provide a promising platform for the functional restoration of large bone defects.

Biomechanical evaluation of an injectable and biodegradable copolymer P(PF-co-CL) in a cadaveric vertebral body defect model

A novel biodegradable copolymer, poly(propylene fumarate-co-caprolactone) [P(PF-co-CL)], has been developed in our laboratory as an injectable scaffold for bone defect repair. In the current study, we evaluated the ability of P(PF-co-CL) to reconstitute the load-bearing capacity of vertebral bodies with lytic lesions. Forty vertebral bodies from four fresh-frozen cadaveric thoracolumbar spines were used for this study. They were randomly divided into four groups: intact vertebral body (intact control), simulated defect without treatment (negative control), defect treated with P(PF-co-CL) (copolymer group), and defect treated with poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA group). Simulated metastatic lytic defects were made by removing a central core of the trabecular bone in each vertebral body with an approximate volume of 25% through an access hole in the side of the vertebrae. Defects were then filled by injecting either P(PF-co-CL) or PMMA in situ crosslinkable formulations. After the spines were imaged with quantitative computerized tomography, single vertebral body segments were harvested for mechanical testing. Specimens were compressed until failure or to 25% reduction in body height and ultimate strength and elastic modulus of each specimen were then calculated from the force-displacement data. The average failure strength of the copolymer group was 1.83 times stronger than the untreated negative group and it closely matched the intact vertebral bodies (intact control). The PMMA-treated vertebrae, however, had a failure strength 1.64 times larger compared with the intact control. The elastic modulus followed the same trend. This modulus mismatch between PMMA-treated vertebrae and the host vertebrae could potentially induce a fracture cascade and degenerative changes in adjacent intervertebral discs. In contrast, P(PF-co-CL) restored the mechanical properties of the treated segments similar to the normal, intact, vertebrae. Therefore, P(PF-co-CL) may be a suitable alternative to PMMA for vertebroplasty treatment of vertebral bodies with lytic defects.

Towards excimer-laser-based stereolithography: a rapid process to fabricate rigid biodegradable photopolymer scaffolds

We demonstrate high-resolution photocross-linking of biodegradable poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and diethyl fumarate (DEF) using UV excimer laser photocuring at 308 nm. The curing depth can be tuned in a micrometre range by adjusting the total energy dose (total fluence). Young's moduli of the scaffolds are found to be a few gigapascal, high enough to support bone formation. The results presented here demonstrate that the proposed technique is an excellent tool for the fabrication of stiff and biocompatible structures on a micrometre scale with defined patterns of high resolution in all three spatial dimensions. Using UV laser photocuring at 308 nm will significantly improve the speed of rapid prototyping of biocompatible and biodegradable polymer scaffolds and enables its production in a few seconds, providing high lateral and horizontal resolution. This short timescale is indeed a tremendous asset that will enable a more efficient translation of technology to clinical applications. Preliminary cell tests proved that PPF : DEF scaffolds produced by excimer laser photocuring are biocompatible and, therefore, are promising candidates to be applied in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Poly(ε-caprolactone)-banded spherulites and interaction with MC3T3-E1 cells

We report that protein adsorption, cell attachment, and cell proliferation were enhanced on spherulites-roughened polymer surfaces. Banded spherulites with concentric alternating succession of ridges and valleys were observed on spin-coated thin films of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and two series of PCL binary homoblends composed of high- and low-molecular-weight components when they were isothermally crystallized at 25-52 °C. Their thermal properties, crystallization kinetics, and surface morphology were examined. The melting temperature (T(m)), crystallinity (χ(c)), crystallization rate, and spherulitic patterns showed strong dependence on the crystallization temperature (T(c)) and the blend composition. The surface roughness of the spherulites was higher when T(c) was higher; thus, the larger surface area formed in banded spherulites could adsorb more serum proteins from cell culture media. In vitro mouse preosteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cell attachment, proliferation, and nuclear localization were assessed on the hot-compressed flat disks and spherulites-roughened films of the high-molecular-weight PCL and one of its homoblends. The number of attached MC3T3-E1 cells and the proliferation rate were greater on the rougher surfaces than those on the flat ones. It is interesting to note that cell nuclei were preferentially, though not absolutely, located in or close to the valleys of the banded spherulites. The percentage of cell nuclei in the valleys was higher than 78% when the ridge height and adjacent ridge distance were ~350 and ~35 nm, respectively. This preference was weaker when the ridge height was lower or at a higher cell density. These results suggest that isothermal crystallization of semicrystalline polymers can be an effective thermal treatment method to achieve controllable surface roughness and pattern for regulating cell behaviors in tissue-engineering applications.

Reformulating polycaprolactone fumarate to eliminate toxic diethylene glycol: effects of polymeric branching and autoclave sterilization on material properties

Polycaprolactone fumarate (PCLF) is a cross-linkable derivative of polycaprolactone diol that has been shown to be an effective nerve conduit material that supports regeneration across segmental nerve defects and has warranted future clinical trials. Degradation of PCLF (PCLF(DEG)) releases toxic small molecules of diethylene glycol used as the initiator for the synthesis of polycaprolactone diol. In an effort to eliminate this toxic degradation product we present a strategy for the synthesis of PCLF from either propylene glycol (PCLF(PPD)) or glycerol (PCLF(GLY)). PCLF(PPD) is linear and resembles the previously studied PCLF(DEG), while PCLF(GLY) is branched and exhibits dramatically different material properties. The synthesis and characterization of their thermal, rheological, and mechanical properties are reported. The results show that the linear PCLF(PPD) has material properties similar to the previously studied PCLF(DEG). The branched PCLF(GLY) exhibits dramatically lower crystalline properties resulting in lower rheological and mechanical moduli, and is therefore a more compliant material. In addition, the question of an appropriate Food and Drug Administration approvable sterilization method is addressed. This study shows that autoclave sterilization of PCLF materials is an acceptable sterilization method for cross-linked PCLF and has minimal effect on the PCLF thermal and mechanical properties.

Exposed hydroxyapatite particles on the surface of photo-crosslinked nanocomposites for promoting MC3T3 cell proliferation and differentiation

We present a systematic study for investigating the role of exposed hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles in influencing surface characteristics and mouse pre-osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cell behavior using nanocomposites prepared by photo-crosslinking poly(ε-caprolactone) diacrylate (PCLDA) with HA. PCLDA530 and PCLDA2000 synthesized from poly(ε-caprolactone) diol precursors with nominal molecular weights of 530 and 2000 g mol(-1) were used as the polymer matrices. Crosslinked PCLDA530 was amorphous while crosslinked PCLDA2000 was semi-crystalline. Crosslinked PCLDA/HA composites with different compositions of HA (10%, 20% and 30%) as well as crosslinked PCLDAs were characterized in terms of their composition-dependent physicochemical properties. The tensile, compressive and shear moduli were greatly enhanced by incorporating HA nanoparticles with the polymer matrices. The disk surfaces of original crosslinked PCLDA/HA nanocomposites were removed by cutting using a blade to expose HA nanoparticles that were embedded in the polymer substrates. The composition of HA was much higher on the cut surface, particularly in semi-crystalline crosslinked PCLDA2000/HA nanocomposites. The surface characteristics of original and cut crosslinked PCLDA/HA nanocomposites were compared and correlated with cell behavior on these nanocomposites. MC3T3-E1 cell attachment, proliferation and differentiation were significantly enhanced when the HA composition was increased in original crosslinked PCLDA/HA nanocomposites due to more bioactive HA, higher surface stiffness and rougher topography. More exposed HA on the surface of cut semi-crystalline PCLDA2000/HA nanocomposites resulted in improved hydrophilicity and significantly better MC3T3 cell attachment, proliferation and differentiation compared with the original surfaces. This study suggests that HA nanoparticles may not be fully exploited in polymer/HA nanocomposites where the top polymer surface covers the particles. The removal of this polymer layer can generate more desirable surfaces and osteoconductivity for bone repair and regeneration.

Enhanced cell ingrowth and proliferation through three-dimensional nanocomposite scaffolds with controlled pore structures

We present enhanced cell ingrowth and proliferation through cross-linked three-dimensional (3D) nanocomposite scaffolds fabricated using poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles. Scaffolds with controlled internal pore structures were produced from computer-aided design (CAD) models and solid freeform fabrication (SFF) technique, while those with random pore structures were fabricated by a NaCl leaching technique for comparison. The morphology and mechanical properties of scaffolds were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and mechanical testing, respectively. Pore interconnectivity of scaffolds was assessed using X-ray microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) and 3D imaging analysis. In vitro cell studies have been performed using MC3T3-E1 mouse preosteoblasts and cultured scaffolds in a rotating-wall-vessel bioreactor for 4 and 7 days to assess cell attachment, viability, ingrowth depth, and proliferation. The mechanical properties of cross-linked nanocomposite scaffolds were not significantly different after adding HA or varying pore structures. However, pore interconnectivity of PPF/HA nanocomposite scaffolds with controlled pore structures has been significantly increased, resulting in enhanced cell ingrowth depth 7 days after cell seeding. Cell attachment and proliferation are also higher in PPF/HA nanocomposite scaffolds. These results suggest that cross-linked PPF/HA nanocomposite scaffolds with controlled pore structures may lead to promising bone tissue engineering scaffolds with excellent cell proliferation and ingrowth.

Cross-linking characteristics and mechanical properties of an injectable biomaterial composed of polypropylene fumarate and polycaprolactone co-polymer

In this work, a series of co-polymers of polypropylene fumarate-co-polycaprolactone (PPF-co-PCL) were synthesized via a three-step polycondensation reaction of oligomeric polypropylene fumarate (PPF) with polycaprolactone (PCL). The effects of PPF precursor molecular weight, PCL precursor molecular weight and PCL fraction in the co-polymer (PCL feed ratio) on the maximum cross-linking temperature, gelation time and mechanical properties of the cross-linked co-polymers were investigated. The maximum cross-linking temperature fell between 38.2 ± 0.3 and 47.2 ± 0.4°C, which increased with increasing PCL precursor molecular weight. The gelation time was between 4.2 ± 0.2 and 8.5 ± 0.7 min, and decreased with increasing PCL precursor molecular weight. The compressive moduli ranged from 44 ± 1.8 to 142 ± 7.4 MPa, with enhanced moduli at higher PPF precursor molecular weight and lower PCL feed ratio. The compressive toughness was in the range of 4.1 ± 0.3 and 17.1 ± 1.3 kJ/m(3). Our data suggest that the cross-linking and mechanical properties of PPF-co-PCL can be modulated by varying the composition. Therefore, the PPF-co-PCL co-polymers may offer increased versatility as an injectable, in situ polymerizable biomaterial than the individual polymers of PPF and PCL.

Poly(ethylene glycol)-grafted poly(propylene fumarate) networks and parabolic dependence of MC3T3 cell behavior on the network composition

We present a method to modify poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF), an injectable biomaterial for bone-tissue-engineering applications, by photo-crosslinking it with methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) monoacrylate (mPEGA) at various mPEGA compositions of 0-30%. The bulk properties such as thermal and rheological properties of uncrosslinked mPEGA/PPF blends and the mechanical properties of photo-crosslinked mPEGA/PPF blends were also investigated and correlated with surface characteristics to elaborate on the modulation of mouse MC3T3 cell adhesion, spreading, proliferation and differentiation through controlled physicochemical properties. Unlike PPF crosslinked with PEG dimethacrylate, mPEGA chains tethered on the surface of crosslinked PPF did not influence the swelling ratio in water while increased surface hydrophilicity greatly. Meanwhile, surface frictional coefficient and the capability of adsorbing proteins from cell culture medium decreased continuously with increasing the mPEGA composition in mPEGA/PPF networks. Demonstrating cell repulsive effect at the mPEGA compositions higher than 7%, the modified surfaces improved MC3T3 cell attachment, proliferation and differentiation, which reached maxima at the mPEGA composition of 5-7%. Besides revealing that mPEGA pendant chains could enhance cell responses by increasing hydrophilicity when their fraction on the hydrophobic surface was small, the present study also offered a new method of improving the wettability and performance of the scaffolds made from PPF for bone repair.

A poly(propylene fumarate)--calcium phosphate based angiogenic injectable bone cement for femoral head osteonecrosis

Osteonecrosis of the femoral head commonly occurs when the blood supply to bone was disrupted. The general treatment for early stages of necrosis in the femoral head is core decompression. However, the long-term outcome of this operation is usually compromised due to collapse of the necrotic bone. In this study, poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and calcium phosphate cement (CPC) were combined to provide appropriate mechanical strength after core-decompressed femoral heads and offer the properties of osteoconductivity. Effects of different ratios of CPC to PPF on mechanical and cytotoxicity were investigated. Results show that bone cement is less cytotoxic with the C/P ratio raise, and the increment of the CPC proportion also strengthens the mechanical strength, reduces the crosslinking temperature and diminishes excessive swelling of the cement. With addition of ginsenoside Rg1 the bone cement composite can also offer angiogenic effect. The drug release profiles were analyzed and the angiogenecity of released Rg1 was confirmed by the assay of tube formation in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). In summary, the newly developed angiogenic bone cement composite possesses remarkable development potential for application to treating osteonecrosis of the femoral head.

Polymers for Fabricating Nerve Conduits

Peripheral nerve regeneration is a complicated and long-term medical challenge that requires suitable guides for bridging nerve injury gaps and restoring nerve functions. Many natural and synthetic polymers have been used to fabricate nerve conduits as well as luminal fillers for achieving desired nerve regenerative functions. It is important to understand the intrinsic properties of these polymers and techniques that have been used for fabricating nerve conduits. Previously extensive reviews have been focused on the biological functions and in vivo performance of polymeric nerve conduits. In this paper, we emphasize on the structures, thermal and mechanical properties of these naturally derived synthetic polymers, and their fabrication methods. These aspects are critical for the performance of fabricated nerve conduits. By learning from the existing candidates, we can advance the strategies for designing novel polymeric systems with better properties for nerve regeneration.

Effects of composite formulation on the mechanical properties of biodegradable poly(propylene fumarate)/bone fiber scaffolds

The objective of our study was to determine the effects of composite formulation on the compressive modulus and ultimate strength of a biodegradable, in situ polymerizable poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and bone fiber scaffold. The following parameters were investigated: the incorporation of bone fibers (either mineralized or demineralized), PPF molecular weight, N-vinyl pyrrolidinone (NVP) crosslinker amount, benzoyl peroxide (BP) initiator amount, and sodium chloride porogen amount. Eight formulations were chosen based on a resolution III two level fractional factorial design. The compressive modulus and ultimate strength of these formulations were measured on a materials testing machine. Absolute values for compressive modulus varied from 21.3 to 271 MPa and 2.8 to 358 MPa for dry and wet samples, respectively. The ultimate strength of the crosslinked composites varied from 2.1 to 20.3 MPa for dry samples and from 0.4 to 16.6 MPa for wet samples. Main effects of each parameter on the measured property were calculated. The incorporation of mineralized bone fibers and an increase in PPF molecular weight resulted in higher compressive modulus and ultimate strength. Both mechanical properties also increased as the amount of benzoyl peroxide increased or the NVP amount decreased in the formulation. Sodium chloride had a dominating effect on the increase of mechanical properties in dry samples but showed little effects in wet samples. Demineralization of bone fibers led to a decrease in the compressive modulus and ultimate strength. Our results suggest that bone fibers are appropriate as structural enforcement components in PPF scaffolds. The desired orthopaedic PPF scaffold might be obtained by changing a variety of composite formulation parameters.

Potential of hydrogels based on poly(ethylene glycol) and sebacic acid as orthopedic tissue engineering scaffolds

In this study, the bioactive effects of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) sebacic acid diacrylate (PEGSDA) hydrogels with or without RGD peptide modification on osteogenic differentiation and mineralization of marrow stromal cells (MSCs) were examined. In a separate experiment, the ability of PEGSDA hydrogel to serve as a delivery vehicle for bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) was also investigated. As a scaffold, the attachment and proliferation of MSCs on PEGSDA hydrogel scaffolds with and without RGD peptide modification was similar to the control, tissue culture polystyrene. In contrast, cells were barely seen on unmodified PEG diacrylate (PEGDA) hydrogel throughout the culture period for up to 21 days. Osteogenic phenotypic expression such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP) of MSCs as well as mineralized calcium content were significantly higher on PEGSDA-based hydrogels than those on the control or PEGDA hydrogels. Potential use of PEGSDA scaffold as a delivery vehicle of osteogenic molecules such as BMP-2 was also evaluated. Initial burst release of BMP-2 from PEGSDA hydrogel scaffold (14.7%) was significantly reduced compared to PEGDA hydrogel scaffold (84.2%) during the first 3 days of a 21-day release period. ALP activity of an osteoblast was significantly higher in the presence of BMP-2 released from PEGSDA hydrogel scaffolds compared to that in the presence of BMP-2 released from PEGDA scaffolds, especially after 6 days of release. Overall, PEGSDA hydrogel scaffolds without further modification may be useful as orthopedic tissue engineering scaffolds as well as local drug carriers for prolonged sustained release of osteoinductive molecules.

Photo-crosslinked poly(epsilon-caprolactone fumarate) networks for guided peripheral nerve regeneration: material properties and preliminary biological evaluations

In an effort to achieve suitable biomaterials for peripheral nerve regeneration, we present a material design strategy of combining a crystallite-based physical network and a crosslink-based chemical network. Biodegradable polymer disks and conduits have been fabricated by photo-crosslinking three poly(epsilon-caprolactone fumarate)s (PCLF530, PCLF1250, and PCLF2000), which were synthesized from the precursor poly(epsilon-caprolactone) (PCL) diols with nominal molecular weights of 530, 1250, and 2000 g mol(-1), respectively. Thermal properties such as glass transition temperature (T(g)), melting temperature (T(m)), and crystallinity of photo-crosslinked PCLFs were examined and correlated with their rheological and mechanical properties. Furthermore, in vitro degradation of uncrosslinked and crosslinked PCLFs in PBS crosslinked PCLFs in 1 N NaOH aqueous solution at 37 degrees C was studied. In vitro cytocompatibility, attachment, and proliferation of Schwann cell precursor line SPL201 cells on three PCLF networks were investigated. Crosslinked PCLF2000 with the highest crystallinity and mechanical properties was found to best support cell attachment and proliferation. Using a new photo-crosslinking method, single-lumen crosslinked PCLF nerve conduits without defects were fabricated in a glass mold. Crosslinked PCLF2000 nerve conduits were selected for evaluation in a 1cm gap rat sciatic nerve model. Histological evaluation demonstrated that the material was biocompatible with sufficient strength to hold sutures in place after 6 and 17 weeks of implantation. Nerve cable with myelinated axons was found in the crosslinked PCLF2000 nerve conduit.

Photo-Crosslinked Poly(ε-caprolactone fumarate) Networks: Roles of Crystallinity and Crosslinking Density in Determining Mechanical Properties

We present a material design strategy of combining crystallinity and crosslinking to control the mechanical properties of polymeric biomaterials. Three polycaprolactone fumarates (PCLF530, PCLF1250, and PCLF2000) synthesized from the precursor polycaprolactone (PCL) diols with nominal molecular weights of 530, 1250, and 2000 g.mol(-1), respectively, were employed to fabricate polymer networks via photo-crosslinking process. Five different amounts of photo-crosslinking initiator were applied during fabrication in order to understand the role of photoinitiator in modulating the crosslinking characteristics and physical properties of PCLF networks. Thermal properties such as glass transition temperature (T(g)), melting temperature (T(m)), and degradation temperature (T(d)) of photo-crosslinked PCLFs were examined and correlated with their rheological and mechanical properties.

Physical properties and cellular responses to crosslinkable poly(propylene fumarate)/hydroxyapatite nanocomposites

A series of crosslinkable nanocomposites has been developed using hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles and poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF). PPF/HA nanocomposites with four different weight fractions of HA nanoparticles have been characterized in terms of thermal and mechanical properties. To assess surface chemistry of crosslinked PPF/HA nanocomposites, their hydrophilicity and capability of adsorbing proteins have been determined using static contact angle measurement and MicroBCA protein assay kit after incubation with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), respectively. In vitro cell studies have been performed using MC3T3-E1 mouse pre-osteoblast cells to investigate the ability of PPF/HA nanocomposites to support cell attachment, spreading, and proliferation after 1, 4, and 7 days. By adding HA nanoparticles to PPF, the mechanical properties of crosslinked PPF/HA nanocomposites have not been increased due to the initially high modulus of crosslinked PPF. However, hydrophilicity and serum protein adsorption on the surface of nanocomposites have been significantly increased, resulting in enhanced cell attachment, spreading, and proliferation after 4 days of cell seeding. These results indicate that crosslinkable PPF/HA nanocomposites are useful for hard tissue replacement because of excellent mechanical strength and osteoconductivity.

Photo-cross-linked hybrid polymer networks consisting of poly(propylene fumarate) and poly(caprolactone fumarate): controlled physical properties and regulated bone and nerve cell responses

Aiming to achieve suitable polymeric biomaterials with controlled physical properties for hard and soft tissue replacements, we have developed a series of blends consisting of two photo-cross-linkable polymers: polypropylene fumarate (PPF) and polycaprolactone fumarate (PCLF). Physical properties of both un-cross-linked and UV cross-linked PPF/PCLF blends with PPF composition ranging from 0% to 100% have been investigated extensively. It has been found that the physical properties such as thermal, rheological, and mechanical properties could be modulated efficiently by varying the PPF composition in the blends. Thermal properties including glass transition temperature (T g) and melting temperature (T m) have been correlated with their rheological and mechanical properties. Surface characteristics such as surface morphology, hydrophilicity, and the capability of adsorbing serum protein from culture medium have also been examined for the cross-linked polymer and blend disks. For potential applications in bone and nerve tissue engineering, in vitro cell studies including cytotoxicity, cell adhesion, and proliferation on cross-linked disks with controlled physical properties have been performed using rat bone marrow stromal cells and SPL201 cells, respectively. In addition, the role of mechanical properties such as surface stiffness in modulating cell responses has been emphasized using this model blend system.

Review: Photopolymerizable and Degradable Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Applications

Photopolymerizable and degradable biomaterials are finding widespread application in the field of tissue engineering for the engineering of tissues such as bone, cartilage, and liver. The spatial and temporal control afforded by photoinitiated polymerizations has allowed for the development of injectable materials that can deliver cells and growth factors, as well as for the fabrication of scaffolding with complex structures. The materials developed for these applications range from entirely synthetic polymers (e.g., poly(ethylene glycol)) to purely natural polymers (e.g., hyaluronic acid) that are modified with photoreactive groups, with degradation based on the hydrolytic or enzymatic degradation of bonds in the polymer backbone or crosslinks. The degradation behavior also ranges from purely bulk to entirely surface degrading, based on the nature of the backbone chemistry and type of degradable units. The mechanical properties of these polymers are primarily based on factors such as the network crosslinking density and polymer concentration. As we better understand biological features necessary to control cellular behavior, smarter materials are being developed that can incorporate and mimic many of these factors.

Poly(propylene fumarate) bone tissue engineering scaffold fabrication using stereolithography: effects of resin formulations and laser parameters

Stereolithography using photo-cross-linkable polymeric biomaterials is an effective technique for fabricating highly complex three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds with controlled microstructures for tissue engineering applications. In this study, we have optimized the UV curable polymer solution composition and laser parameters for the stereolithography machine. Poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) was used as the biomaterial, diethyl fumarate (DEF) was used as the solvent, and bisacrylphosphrine oxide (BAPO) was used as the photoinitiator. Three different weight ratios of PPF/DEF and BAPO contents were characterized by measuring the viscosities and thermal properties of the un-cross-linked solutions and the mechanical properties of the formed scaffolds. After optimizing the resin composition by satisfying both the viscosity limitation and the mechanical requirement, laser parameters such as critical exposure (Ec) and penetration depth (Dp) were determined from the working curve and the relationship between laser speed and energy by measuring the thickness of predesigned windows fabricated in stereolithography with different ranges of Ec and Dp. Three-dimensional scaffolds with various pore sizes, pore shapes, and porosities were designed in computer-aided design (CAD) software and were fabricated in stereolithography. The fabricated scaffolds were characterized by measuring external dimensions, porosities, mean pore sizes, and compressive moduli and were compared to the CAD models. Feature accuracy in the xy-plane was achieved and overcuring of the resin in z-axis was minimized. The stereolithographically fabricated scaffolds with controlled microstructures can be useful in diverse tissue engineering applications.