1
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Eijsink LE, Sardjan AS, Sinnema EG, den Besten H, van den Berg KJ, Flapper J, van Gemert R, Feringa BL, Browne WR. In situ EPR and Raman spectroscopy in the curing of bis-methacrylate-styrene resins. RSC Adv 2022; 12:2537-2548. [PMID: 35425317 PMCID: PMC8979059 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra09386j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The curing of bis-methacrylate-styrene resins initiated by the cobalt catalyzed decomposition of cumyl hydroperoxide is monitored at ambient temperatures in situ by EPR and Raman spectroscopy. EPR spectroscopy shows the appearance of organic radicals after ca. 1 h from initiation with an increase in intensity from both polystyrene and methacrylate based radical species over a further ca. 2 h period to reach a maximum spin concentration of ca. 2-3 mM. Alkene conversion to polymer was monitored by Raman spectroscopy in real time in situ with EPR spectroscopy and reveals that the appearance of the radical signals is first observed only as the conversion approaches its maximum extent (70% at room temperature), i.e., the resin reaches a glass-like state. The radicals persist for several months on standing at room temperature. Flash frozen samples (77 K) did not show EPR signals within 1 h of initiation. The nature of the radicals responsible for the EPR spectra observed were explored by DFT methods and isotope labelling experiments (D8-styrene) and correspond to radicals of both methacrylate and polystyrene. Combined temperature dependent EPR and Raman spectroscopy shows that conversion increases rapidly upon heating of a cured sample, reaching full conversion at 80 °C with initially little effect on the EPR spectrum. Over time (i.e. subsequent to reaching full conversion of alkene) there was a small but clear increase in the EPR signal due to the methacrylate based radicals and minor decrease in the signal due to the polystyrene based radicals. The appearance of the radical signals as the reaction reaches completion and their absence in samples flash frozen before polymerization has halted, indicate that the observed radicals are non-propagating. The formation of the radicals due to stress within the samples is excluded. Hence, the observed radicals are a representative of the steady state concentration of radicals present in the resin over the entire timespan of the polymerization. The data indicate that the lack of EPR signals is most likely due to experimental aspects, in particular spin saturation, rather than low steady state concentrations of propagating radicals during polymerization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda E Eijsink
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 Groningen 9747AG The Netherlands
| | - Andy S Sardjan
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 Groningen 9747AG The Netherlands
| | - Esther G Sinnema
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 Groningen 9747AG The Netherlands
| | - Hugo den Besten
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 Groningen 9747AG The Netherlands
| | | | - Jitte Flapper
- Akzo Nobel Decorative Coatings B.V. Rijksstraatweg 31 Sassenheim 2171 AJ The Netherlands
| | - Rogier van Gemert
- Akzo Nobel Car Refinishes N.V. Rijksstraatweg 31 Sassenheim 2171 AJ The Netherlands
| | - Ben L Feringa
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 Groningen 9747AG The Netherlands
| | - Wesley R Browne
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 Groningen 9747AG The Netherlands
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2
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Riemann L, Brandt S, Vana P. Refining Reactivity Ratios in the Copolymerization of Styrene and Methyl Methacrylate by EasySpin/MATLAB Simulations and Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. MACROMOL THEOR SIMUL 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/mats.202100048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lara Riemann
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie Georg‐August‐Universität Göttingen Tammannstraße 6 Göttingen D‐37077 Germany
| | - Sarah Brandt
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie Georg‐August‐Universität Göttingen Tammannstraße 6 Göttingen D‐37077 Germany
| | - Philipp Vana
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie Georg‐August‐Universität Göttingen Tammannstraße 6 Göttingen D‐37077 Germany
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3
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Fleckenstein PJ, Alter C, Lazzari S, Vale HM. A General Approach for Modeling Acrylate and Methacrylate Solution Copolymerizations. Ind Eng Chem Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.1c00767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Christian Alter
- BASF Coatings Materials Research and Technology, Münster 48165, Germany
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4
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Buback M, Kattner H. Detailed analysis of radical polymerisation kinetics by pulsed-laser techniques*. Mol Phys 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/00268976.2021.1939452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Buback
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Goettingen, Gottingen, Germany
| | - Hendrik Kattner
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Goettingen, Gottingen, Germany
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5
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De Smit K, Marien YW, Edeleva M, Van Steenberge PH, D’hooge DR. Roadmap for Monomer Conversion and Chain Length-Dependent Termination Reactivity Algorithms in Kinetic Monte Carlo Modeling of Bulk Radical Polymerization. Ind Eng Chem Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.0c04328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kyann De Smit
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Yoshi W. Marien
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mariya Edeleva
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Paul H.M. Van Steenberge
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Dagmar R. D’hooge
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
- Centre for Textile Science and Engineering (CTSE), Ghent University, Technologiepark 70A, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
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6
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Nitschke A, Riemann L, Kollenbach L, Braun V, Buback M, Vana P. Investigation into the Kinetics of
n
‐Pentyl Methacrylate Radical Polymerization. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201900345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Annika Nitschke
- Georg‐August‐Universität Institut für Physikalische Chemie Tammannstraße 6 D‐37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Lara Riemann
- Georg‐August‐Universität Institut für Physikalische Chemie Tammannstraße 6 D‐37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Leon Kollenbach
- Georg‐August‐Universität Institut für Physikalische Chemie Tammannstraße 6 D‐37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Vanessa Braun
- Georg‐August‐Universität Institut für Physikalische Chemie Tammannstraße 6 D‐37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Georg‐August‐Universität Institut für Physikalische Chemie Tammannstraße 6 D‐37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Philipp Vana
- Georg‐August‐Universität Institut für Physikalische Chemie Tammannstraße 6 D‐37077 Göttingen Germany
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7
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Kajiwara A. Characterizations of radicals formed in radical polymerizations and transfer reactions by electron spin resonance spectroscopy. PURE APPL CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1515/pac-2018-0401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Electron spin resonance (ESR, aka electron paramagnetic resonance, EPR) investigations have been conducted on radicals formed during radical polymerizations and provide a detailed characterization of the active radical species. Active propagating radicals can be observed during actual radical polymerizations by ESR/EPR. The chain lengths of the observed radicals were estimated by a combination of atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and ESR/EPR. The structures of the chain end radicals were determined by analysis of the ESR/EPR spectra. An increase in the dihedral angles between terminal p-orbital of radical and Cβ–H bonds was observed with increasing chain lengths of methacrylate polymers. Radical transfer reactions were observed during radical polymerization of acrylates. A combination of ATRP and ESR/EPR clarified a 1,5-hydrogen shift mechanism of the radical transfer reactions using model adamantyl acrylate radicals. Penultimate unit effects were also observed. Time-resolved ESR/EPR (TR ESR) spectroscopy clarified the initiation processes of an alternating copolymerization of styrene with maleic anhydride and the copolymerization of styrene with 1,3-butadiene. Several unsolved problems in conventional radical polymerization processes have been clarified using combinations of ATRP with ESR/EPR and TR ESR. Characterization of the radicals in radical polymerizations using various ESR techniques would definitely provide interesting and useful information on conventional radical polymerizations.
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8
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Drache M, Brandl K, Reinhardt R, Beuermann S. Ab initio kinetic Monte Carlo simulation of seeded emulsion polymerizations of styrene. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:10796-10805. [PMID: 29411798 DOI: 10.1039/c7cp07768h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Seeded emulsion polymerizations of styrene are modeled on the basis of a detailed kinetic scheme accounting for the chain length and conversion dependence of termination rate coefficients. A holistic kinetic Monte Carlo approach was developed, which simulates the elemental reactions in the aqueous phase, the transfer of radicals into individual particles, and the radical polymerization in each particle based on a complete kinetic model. Experimentally-derived particle size distributions are used as input for the simulations. The required rate coefficients were taken from literature. Without any adjustment of this data a very good agreement between simulation results and experimental data is found. The validation of the model is performed based on monomer conversion - time data and full molar mass distributions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Drache
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Clausthal University of Technology, Arnold-Sommerfeld-Straße 4, 38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany.
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9
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Kattner H, Buback M. Termination, Propagation, and Transfer Kinetics of Midchain Radicals in Methyl Acrylate and Dodecyl Acrylate Homopolymerization. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b02241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Kattner
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
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10
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Eggers S, Eckert T, Abetz V. Double thermoresponsive block-random copolymers with adjustable phase transition temperatures: From block-like to gradient-like behavior. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/pola.28906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Eggers
- Department of Physical Chemistry; University of Hamburg, Grindelallee 117; Hamburg 20146 Germany
| | - Tilman Eckert
- Department of Physical Chemistry; University of Hamburg, Grindelallee 117; Hamburg 20146 Germany
| | - Volker Abetz
- Department of Physical Chemistry; University of Hamburg, Grindelallee 117; Hamburg 20146 Germany
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Institute of Polymer Research, Max-Planck-Straße 1; Geesthacht 21502 Germany
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11
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Kattner H, Buback M. Chain-Length-Dependent Termination of Styrene Bulk Polymerization up to High Degrees of Monomer Conversion. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b00745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Kattner
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
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12
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Kattner H, Buback M. Termination, Transfer, and Propagation Kinetics of Trimethylaminoethyl Acrylate Chloride Radical Polymerization in Aqueous Solution. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b00328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Kattner
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
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13
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14
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Kattner H, Drawe P, Buback M. Chain-Length-Dependent Termination of Sodium Methacrylate Polymerization in Aqueous Solution Studied by SP-PLP-EPR. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b02641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Kattner
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Patrick Drawe
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
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15
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Smolne S, Weber S, Buback M. Propagation and Termination Kinetics of Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Methyl Ether Methacrylate in Aqueous Solution. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201600302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Smolne
- Institute for Physical Chemistry; University of Göttingen; Tammannstr. 6 37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Stella Weber
- Institute for Physical Chemistry; University of Göttingen; Tammannstr. 6 37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Institute for Physical Chemistry; University of Göttingen; Tammannstr. 6 37077 Göttingen Germany
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16
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Kryven I, Duivenvoorden J, Hermans J, Iedema PD. Random Graph Approach to Multifunctional Molecular Networks. MACROMOL THEOR SIMUL 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/mats.201600052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Kryven
- van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences University of Amsterdam Science Park 904, P.O. Box: 94214 1090GE Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Jorien Duivenvoorden
- van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences University of Amsterdam Science Park 904, P.O. Box: 94214 1090GE Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Joen Hermans
- van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences University of Amsterdam Science Park 904, P.O. Box: 94214 1090GE Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Piet D. Iedema
- van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences University of Amsterdam Science Park 904, P.O. Box: 94214 1090GE Amsterdam The Netherlands
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17
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18
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Kattner H, Buback M. Propagation and Chain-Length-Dependent Termination Rate Coefficients Deduced from a Single SP–PLP–EPR Experiment. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b00483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Kattner
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstr.
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
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19
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Buback M, Schroeder H, Kattner H. Detailed Kinetic and Mechanistic Insight into Radical Polymerization by Spectroscopic Techniques. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.5b02660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Buback
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstraße
6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Hendrik Schroeder
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstraße
6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Hendrik Kattner
- Institut für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstraße
6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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20
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Kattner H, Buback M. EPR Study of Backbiting in the Aqueous-Solution Polymerization of Acrylamide. Macromol Rapid Commun 2015; 36:2186-91. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.201500479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Kattner
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie; Georg-August-Universität Göttingen; Tammannstr. 6 D-37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie; Georg-August-Universität Göttingen; Tammannstr. 6 D-37077 Göttingen Germany
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21
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Kattner H, Buback M. Termination and Transfer Kinetics of Acrylamide Homopolymerization in Aqueous Solution. Macromolecules 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.5b01921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Kattner
- Institut
für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstrasse
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Institut
für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstrasse
6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
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22
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Schroeder
- Institut
für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstraße
6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Institut
für Physikalische
Chemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tammannstraße
6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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23
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Victoria-Valenzuela D, Herrera-Ordonez J, Luna-Barcenas G. Toward a General Methodology for Modeling Diffusive-Controlled Reactions in Free Radical Polymerization. MACROMOL THEOR SIMUL 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/mats.201500025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Victoria-Valenzuela
- Departamento de Procesos de Polimerización; Centro de Investigación en Química Aplicada (CIQA); Blvd. Enrique Reyna Hermosillo; Saltillo Coah 25253 Mexico
| | - Jorge Herrera-Ordonez
- Grupo de Polímeros y Biopolímeros; Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados (CINVESTAV) del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN); Unidad Querétaro; Fracc. Real de Juriquilla Santiago de Querétaro 76230 Mexico
| | - Gabriel Luna-Barcenas
- Grupo de Polímeros y Biopolímeros; Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados (CINVESTAV) del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN); Unidad Querétaro; Fracc. Real de Juriquilla Santiago de Querétaro 76230 Mexico
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24
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Kattner H, Drawe P, Buback M. Novel Access to Propagation Rate Coefficients of Radical Polymerization by the SP-PLP-EPR Method. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201500191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Kattner
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie; Georg-August-Universität Göttingen; Tammannstr.6 D-37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Patrick Drawe
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie; Georg-August-Universität Göttingen; Tammannstr.6 D-37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Michael Buback
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie; Georg-August-Universität Göttingen; Tammannstr.6 D-37077 Göttingen Germany
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25
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Schroeder H, Lake BRM, Demeshko S, Shaver MP, Buback M. A Synthetic and Multispectroscopic Speciation Analysis of Controlled Radical Polymerization Mediated by Amine–Bis(phenolate)iron Complexes. Macromolecules 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.5b01175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin R. M. Lake
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black
Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, United Kingdom
| | | | - Michael P. Shaver
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black
Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, United Kingdom
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