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Lee H, Cho S, Kim D, Lee T, Kim HS. Bioelectric medicine: unveiling the therapeutic potential of micro-current stimulation. Biomed Eng Lett 2024; 14:367-392. [PMID: 38645592 PMCID: PMC11026362 DOI: 10.1007/s13534-024-00366-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Bioelectric medicine (BEM) refers to the use of electrical signals to modulate the electrical activity of cells and tissues in the body for therapeutic purposes. In this review, we particularly focused on the microcurrent stimulation (MCS), because, this can take place at the cellular level with sub-sensory application unlike other stimuli. These extremely low-level currents mimic the body's natural electrical activity and are believed to promote various physiological processes. To date, MCS has limited use in the field of BEM with applications in several therapeutic purposes. However, recent studies provide hopeful signs that MCS is more scalable and widely applicable than what has been used so far. Therefore, this review delves into the landscape of MCS, shedding light on the multifaceted applications and untapped potential of MCS in the realm of healthcare. Particularly, we summarized the hierarchical mediation from cell to whole body responses by MCS including its physiological applications. Our final objective of this review is to contribute to the growing body of literature that unveils the captivating potential of BEM, with MCS poised at the intersection of technological innovation and the intricacies of the human body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Gangwon 26493 South Korea
| | - Seungkwan Cho
- Gfyhealth Inc., Seongnam, Gyeonggi 13488 South Korea
| | - Doyong Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Gangwon 26493 South Korea
| | - Taehyun Lee
- Gfyhealth Inc., Seongnam, Gyeonggi 13488 South Korea
| | - Han Sung Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Gangwon 26493 South Korea
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2
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Ma X, Wang X, Zhu K, Ma R, Chu F, Liu X, Zhang S, Yin T, Zhou X, Liu Z. Study on the Role of Physical Fields in TMAS to Modulate Synaptic Plasticity in Mice. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2024; 71:1531-1541. [PMID: 38117631 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2023.3342012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Transcranial magneto-acoustic stimulation (TMAS) is a composite technique combining static magnetic and coupled electric fields with transcranial ultrasound stimulation (TUS) and has shown advantages in neuromodulation. However, the role of these physical fields in neuromodulation is unclear. Synaptic plasticity is the cellular basis for learning and memory. In this paper, we varied the intensity of static magnetic, electric and ultrasonic fields respectively to investigate the modulation of synaptic plasticity by these physical fields. METHODS There are control, static magnetic field (0.1 T/0.2 T), TUS (0.15/0.3 MPa), and TMAS (0.15 MPa + 0.2 V/m, 0.3 MPa + 0.2 V/m, 0.3 MPa + 0.4 V/m) groups. Hippocampal areas were stimulated at 5 min daily for 7 days and in vivo electrophysiological experiments were performed. RESULTS TMAS induced greater LTP, LTD, and paired-pulse ratio (PPR) than TUS, reflecting that TMAS has a more significant modulation in both long- and short- term synaptic plasticity. In TMAS, a doubling of the electric field amplitude increases LTP, LTD and PPR to a greater extent than a doubling of the acoustic pressure. Increasing the static magnetic field intensity has no significant effect on the modulation of synaptic plasticity. CONCLUSION This paper argues that electric fields should be the main reason for the difference in modulation between TMAS and TUS and that changing the amplitude of the electric field affected the modulation of TMAS more than changing the acoustic pressure. SIGNIFICANCE This study elucidates the roles of the physical fields in TMAS and provides a parameterisation way to guide TMAS applications based on the dominant roles of the physical fields.
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3
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Nicollier PM, Ratschow AD, Ruggeri F, Drechsler U, Hardt S, Paratore F, Knoll AW. Gate Electrodes Enable Tunable Nanofluidic Particle Traps. J Phys Chem Lett 2024; 15:4151-4157. [PMID: 38597408 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.4c00278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
The ability to control the location of nanoscale objects in liquids is essential for fundamental and applied research from nanofluidics to molecular biology. To overcome their random Brownian motion, the electrostatic fluid trap creates local minima in potential energy by shaping electrostatic interactions with a tailored wall topography. However, this strategy is inherently static; once fabricated, the potential wells cannot be modulated. Here, we propose and experimentally demonstrate that such a trap can be controlled through a buried gate electrode. We measure changes in the average escape times of nanoparticles from the traps to quantify the induced modulations of 0.7 kBT in potential energy and 50 mV in surface potential. Finally, we summarize the mechanism in a parameter-free predictive model, including surface chemistry and electrostatic fringing, that reproduces the experimental results. Our findings open a route toward real-time controllable nanoparticle traps.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aaron D Ratschow
- Institute for Nano- and Microfluidics, TU Darmstadt, Peter-Grünberg-Strasse 10, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Francesca Ruggeri
- IBM Research Europe - Zurich, Säumerstrasse 4, CH-8803 Rüschlikon, Switzerland
| | - Ute Drechsler
- IBM Research Europe - Zurich, Säumerstrasse 4, CH-8803 Rüschlikon, Switzerland
| | - Steffen Hardt
- Institute for Nano- and Microfluidics, TU Darmstadt, Peter-Grünberg-Strasse 10, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Federico Paratore
- IBM Research Europe - Zurich, Säumerstrasse 4, CH-8803 Rüschlikon, Switzerland
- Laboratory for Soft Materials and Interfaces, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Armin W Knoll
- IBM Research Europe - Zurich, Säumerstrasse 4, CH-8803 Rüschlikon, Switzerland
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4
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Gao F, Yang X, Song W. Bioinspired Supramolecular Hydrogel from Design to Applications. SMALL METHODS 2024; 8:e2300753. [PMID: 37599261 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202300753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Nature offers a wealth of opportunities to solve scientific and technological issues based on its unique structures and function. The dynamic non-covalent interaction is considered to be the main base of living functions of creatures including humans, animals, and plants. Supramolecular hydrogels formed by non-covalent bonding interactions has become a unique platform for constructing promising materials for medicine, energy, electronic, and biological substitute. In this review, the self-assemble principle of supramolecular hydrogels is summarized. Next, the stimulation of external environment that triggers the assembly or disassembly of supramolecular hydrogels are recapitulated, including temperature, mechanics, light, pH, ions, etc. The main applications of bioinspired supramolecular hydrogels in terms of bionic objects including humans, animals, and plants are also described. Although so many efforts are done for revealing the synergized mechanism of the function and non-covalent interactions on the supramolecular hydrogel, the complexity and variability between stimulus and non-covalent bonding in the supramolecular system still require impeccable theories. As an outlook, the bioinspired supramolecular hydrogel is just beginning to exhibit its great potential in human life, offering significant opportunities in drug delivery and screening, implantable devices and substitutions, tissue engineering, micro-fluidic devices, and biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China
| | - Xuhao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China
| | - Wenlong Song
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China
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5
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Colla T, Telles IM, Arfan M, Dos Santos AP, Levin Y. Spiers Memorial Lecture: Towards understanding of iontronic systems: electroosmotic flow of monovalent and divalent electrolyte through charged cylindrical nanopores. Faraday Discuss 2023; 246:11-46. [PMID: 37395363 DOI: 10.1039/d3fd00062a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
In many practical applications, ions are the primary charge carrier and must move through either semipermeable membranes or through pores, which mimic ion channels in biological systems. In analogy to electronic devices, the "iontronic" ones use electric fields to induce the charge motion. However, unlike the electrons that move through a conductor, motion of ions is usually associated with simultaneous solvent flow. A study of electroosmotic flow through narrow pores is an outstanding challenge that lies at the interface of non-equilibrium statistical mechanics and fluid dynamics. In this paper, we will review recent works that use dissipative particle dynamics simulations to tackle this difficult problem. We will also present a classical density functional theory (DFT) based on the hypernetted-chain approximation (HNC), which allows us to calculate the velocity of electroosmotic flows inside nanopores containing 1 : 1 or 2 : 1 electrolyte solution. The theoretical results will be compared with simulations. In simulations, the electrostatic interactions are treated using the recently introduced pseudo-1D Ewald summation method. The zeta potentials calculated from the location of the shear plane of a pure solvent are found to agree reasonably well with the Smoluchowski equation. However, the quantitative structure of the fluid velocity profiles deviates significantly from the predictions of the Smoluchowski equation in the case of charged pores with 2 : 1 electrolyte. For low to moderate surface charge densities, the DFT allows us to accurately calculate the electrostatic potential profiles and the zeta potentials inside the nanopores. For pores with 1 : 1 electrolyte, the agreement between theory and simulation is particularly good for large ions, for which steric effects dominate over the ionic electrostatic correlations. The electroosmotic flow is found to depend very strongly on the ionic radii. In the case of pores containing 2 : 1 electrolyte, we observe a reentrant transition in which the electroosmotic flow first reverses and then returns to normal as the surface change density of the pore is increased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago Colla
- Instituto de Física, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, 35400-000, Brazil.
| | - Igor M Telles
- Instituto de Física, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Caixa Postal 15051, Porto Alegre, RS, CEP 91501-970, Brazil.
| | - Muhammad Arfan
- Instituto de Física, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Caixa Postal 15051, Porto Alegre, RS, CEP 91501-970, Brazil.
| | - Alexandre P Dos Santos
- Instituto de Física, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Caixa Postal 15051, Porto Alegre, RS, CEP 91501-970, Brazil.
| | - Yan Levin
- Instituto de Física, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Caixa Postal 15051, Porto Alegre, RS, CEP 91501-970, Brazil.
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6
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Bush SN, Ken JS, Martin CR. The Ionic Composition and Chemistry of Nanopore-Confined Solutions. ACS NANO 2022; 16:8338-8346. [PMID: 35486898 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c02597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
There is increasing interest in understanding the properties of solutions confined within nanotubes and synthetic or biological nanopores. How the ionic content of a nanopore-confined solution differs from that of a contacting bulk salt solution is of particular importance, for example, to water desalinization, industrial electrolysis, and all living systems. This paper explores ionic content, ionic interactions, and ion-transport properties of solutions confined within the 10 nm diameter pores of a synthetic polymer membrane. The membrane has a fixed negative pore-wall and surface charge due to ionizable carbonate groups. As a result, under some conditions, the nanopore-confined solution contains only cations and no anions or salt present in a contacting solution, ideal cation permselectivity. This anion- and salt-rejecting ability varies greatly with the cation of the salt, a result that is in contradiction to the prevailing model for permselectivity in nanopores. The extant model fails because it does not account for specific chemical interactions between the cation and the carbonate groups. The nature of these ion-selective interactions is discussed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stevie N Bush
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200, United States
| | - Jay S Ken
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200, United States
| | - Charles R Martin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200, United States
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7
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Guan T, Cheng M, Zeng L, Chen X, Xie Y, Lei Z, Ruan Q, Wang J, Cui S, Sun Y, Li H. Engineering the Redox-Driven Channel for Precisely Regulating Nanoconfined Glutathione Identification and Transport. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:49137-49145. [PMID: 34623797 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c12061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Bioinspired artificial nanochannels for molecular and ionic transport have extensive applications. However, it is still a huge challenge to achieve an intelligent transport system with high selectivity/efficiency and controllability. Inspired by glutathione transport across the plasma membrane via redox regulation, we herein designed and fabricated a redox-reactive artificial nanochannel based on the host-guest chemical strategy. The nanochannel platform achieved high selectivity/efficiency for the identification and transmission of glutathione in the confined space. In addition, this nanochannel can switch between the ON and OFF states through the redox reaction. This redox-regulated system can provide a potential application for detection/binding of biological analytes and redox-controlled drug release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianpei Guan
- Department 2 of Gastroentestinal Surgery, Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510095, P. R. China
| | - Ming Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology (CCNU), Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Lisi Zeng
- Department 2 of Gastroentestinal Surgery, Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510095, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoya Chen
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology (CCNU), Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Yuan Xie
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radioactive and Rare Resource Utilization, Shaoguan 512026, P. R. China
| | - Ziying Lei
- Department 2 of Gastroentestinal Surgery, Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510095, P. R. China
| | - Qiang Ruan
- Department 2 of Gastroentestinal Surgery, Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510095, P. R. China
| | - Jin Wang
- Department 2 of Gastroentestinal Surgery, Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510095, P. R. China
| | - Shuzhong Cui
- Department 2 of Gastroentestinal Surgery, Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510095, P. R. China
| | - Yao Sun
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology (CCNU), Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Haibing Li
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology (CCNU), Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
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8
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Krom AI, Ryzhkov II. Ionic Conductivity of Nanopores with Electrically Conductive Surface: Comparison Between 1D and 2D Models. ADVANCED THEORY AND SIMULATIONS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/adts.202100174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Artur I. Krom
- Department of Computational Physics Institute of Computational Modelling SB RAS Akademgorodok Krasnoyarsk 660036 Russia
| | - Ilya I. Ryzhkov
- Department of Computational Physics Institute of Computational Modelling SB RAS Akademgorodok Krasnoyarsk 660036 Russia
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer Security Siberian Federal University Svobodny 79 Krasnoyarsk 660041 Russia
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9
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Nouri R, Guan W. Nanofluidic charged-coupled devices for controlled DNA transport and separation. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 32:345501. [PMID: 34081025 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac027f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Controlled molecular transport and separation is of significant importance in various applications. In this work, we presented a novel concept of nanofluidic molecular charge-coupled device (CCD) for controlled DNA transport and separation. By leveraging the unique field-effect coupling in nanofluidic systems, the nanofluidic molecular CCD aims to store charged biomolecules such as DNAs in discrete regions in nanochannels and transfer and separate these biomolecules as a charge packet in a bucket brigade fashion. We developed a quantitative model to capture the impact of nanochannel surface charge, gating voltage and frequency, molecule diffusivity, and gating electrode geometry on the transport and separation efficiency. We studied the synergistic effects of these factors to guide the device design and optimize the DNA transport and separation in a nanofluidic CCD. The findings in this study provided insight into the rational design and implementation of the nanofluidic molecular CCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reza Nouri
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, United States of America
| | - Weihua Guan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, United States of America
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10
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Ryzhkov II, Shchurkina MA, Mikhlina EV, Simunin MM, Nemtsev IV. Switchable ionic selectivity of membranes with electrically conductive surface: Theory and experiment. Electrochim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2021.137970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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11
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Levy A, de Souza JP, Bazant MZ. Breakdown of electroneutrality in nanopores. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 579:162-176. [PMID: 32590157 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2020.05.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Ion transport in extremely narrow nanochannels has gained increasing interest in recent years due to unique physical properties at the nanoscale and the technological advances that allow us to study them. It is tempting to approach this confined regime with the theoretical tools and knowledge developed for membranes and microfluidic devices, and naively apply continuum models, such as the Poisson-Nernst-Planck and Navier-Stokes equations. However, it turns out that some of the most basic principles we take for granted in larger systems, such as the complete screening of surface charge by counter-ions, can break down under extreme confinement. We show that in a truly one-dimensional system of ions interacting with three-dimensional electrostatic interactions, the screening length is exponentially large, and can easily exceed the macroscopic length of a nanotube. Without screening, electroneutrality breaks down within the nanotube, with fundamental consequences for ion transport and electrokinetic phenomena. In this work, we build a general theoretical framework for electroneutrality breakdown in nanopores, focusing on the most interesting case of a one-dimensional nanotube, and show how it provides an elegant interpretation for the peculiar scaling observed in experimental measurements of ionic conductance in carbon nanotubes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Levy
- Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - J Pedro de Souza
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Martin Z Bazant
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA; Department of Mathematics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA.
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12
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Smolyanitsky A, Fang A, Kazakov AF, Paulechka E. Ion transport across solid-state ion channels perturbed by directed strain. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:10328-10334. [PMID: 32367087 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr01858a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We combine quantum-chemical calculations and molecular dynamics simulations to consider aqueous ion flow across non-axisymmetric nanopores in monolayer graphene and MoS2. When the pore-containing membrane is subject to uniaxial tensile strains applied in various directions, the corresponding permeability exhibits considerable directional dependence. This anisotropy is shown to arise from directed perturbations of the local electrostatics by the corresponding pore deformation, as enabled by the pore edge geometries and atomic compositions. By considering nanopores with ionic permeability that depends on the strain direction, we present model systems that may yield a detailed understanding of the structure-function relationship in solid-state and biological ion channels. Specifically, the observed anisotropic effects potentially enable the use of permeation measurements across strained membranes to obtain directional profiles of ion-pore energetics as contributed by groups of atoms or even individual atoms at the pore edge. The resulting insight may facilitate the development of subnanoscale pores with novel functionalities arising from locally asymmetric pore edge features.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Smolyanitsky
- Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA.
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13
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Doi K, Asano N, Kawano S. Development of glass micro-electrodes for local electric field, electrical conductivity, and pH measurements. Sci Rep 2020; 10:4110. [PMID: 32139704 PMCID: PMC7058011 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-60713-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
In micro- and nanofluidic devices, liquid flows are often influenced by ionic currents generated by electric fields in narrow channels, which is an electrokinetic phenomenon. Various technologies have been developed that are analogous to semiconductor devices, such as diodes and field effect transistors. On the other hand, measurement techniques for local electric fields in such narrow channels have not yet been established. In the present study, electric fields in liquids are locally measured using glass micro-electrodes with 1-μm diameter tips, which are constructed by pulling a glass tube. By scanning a liquid poured into a channel by glass micro-electrodes, the potential difference in a liquid can be determined with a spatial resolution of the size of the glass tip. As a result, the electrical conductivity of sample solutions can be quantitatively evaluated. Furthermore, combining two glass capillaries filled with buffer solutions of different concentrations, an ionic diode that rectifies the proton conduction direction is constructed, and the possibility of pH measurement is also demonstrated. Under constant-current conditions, pH values ranging from 1.68 to 9.18 can be determined more quickly and stably than with conventional methods that depend on the proton selectivity of glass electrodes under equilibrium conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Doi
- Department of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka, 560-8531, Japan.
| | - Naoki Asano
- Department of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka, 560-8531, Japan
| | - Satoyuki Kawano
- Department of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka, 560-8531, Japan.
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14
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Ryzhkov II, Vyatkin AS, Mikhlina EV. Modelling of Conductive Nanoporous Membranes with Switchable Ionic Selectivity. MEMBRANES AND MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGIES 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s2517751620010072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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15
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Li Y, Du G, Mao G, Guo J, Zhao J, Wu R, Liu W. Electrical Field Regulation of Ion Transport in Polyethylene Terephthalate Nanochannels. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:38055-38060. [PMID: 31553570 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b13088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Rectified ion transport in nanochannels is the basis of ion channels in biological cells and has inspired emerging nanochannel applications in ion separation, Coulter counters, and biomolecule detection and nanochannel energy harvesters. In this work we fabricated a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) conical nanochannel using latent ion track etching technique and then systematically studied the ion transport and influence of cation species on the nanochannel surface with cyclic I-V measurement. We discovered the electrical regulation of the reversible and irreversible modification of the nanochannel transportation by bivalent and trivalent cations, revealing the existence of the switching threshold voltage which can control the current rectification in bivalent solution. The proposed mechanism of the transport state transition in the PET nanochannel mimics behaviors of voltage-gated biological ion channels. These findings provide new insight into the understanding of the ion channel signaling and translocation control of charged particles in nanochannel applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaning Li
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Lanzhou 730000 , China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Guanghua Du
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Lanzhou 730000 , China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Guangbo Mao
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Lanzhou 730000 , China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Jinlong Guo
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Lanzhou 730000 , China
| | - Jing Zhao
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Lanzhou 730000 , China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Ruqun Wu
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Lanzhou 730000 , China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Wenjing Liu
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Lanzhou 730000 , China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
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16
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Yang J, Zhu W, Zhang X, Chen F, Jiang L. Gated ion transport through layered graphene oxide membranes. NEW J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9nj00460b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The gate-induced directional ion transport in 2D layered materials provides a new way for effective control over the transport behaviors in synthetic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinlei Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science
- Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
| | - Weiwei Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science
- Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
| | - Xiaopeng Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science
- Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
| | - Fengxiang Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science
- Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
| | - Lei Jiang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science
- Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
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17
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Wu Y, Wang D, Willner I, Tian Y, Jiang L. Smart DNA Hydrogel Integrated Nanochannels with High Ion Flux and Adjustable Selective Ionic Transport. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201803222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yafeng Wu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Southeast University; Nanjing 211189 China
- Laboratory of Bioinspired Smart Interfacial Science; Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 P. R. China
| | - Dianyu Wang
- Jilin University; College of Chemistry; Changchun 130012 P. R. China
| | - Itamar Willner
- Institute of Chemistry; The Minerva Center for Complex Biohybrid Systems; The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Jerusalem 91904 Israel
| | - Ye Tian
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS); Key Laboratory of Organic Solids; Institute of Chemistry; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 P. R. China
| | - Lei Jiang
- Laboratory of Bioinspired Smart Interfacial Science; Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 P. R. China
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18
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Wu Y, Wang D, Willner I, Tian Y, Jiang L. Smart DNA Hydrogel Integrated Nanochannels with High Ion Flux and Adjustable Selective Ionic Transport. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:7790-7794. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201803222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yafeng Wu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Southeast University; Nanjing 211189 China
- Laboratory of Bioinspired Smart Interfacial Science; Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 P. R. China
| | - Dianyu Wang
- Jilin University; College of Chemistry; Changchun 130012 P. R. China
| | - Itamar Willner
- Institute of Chemistry; The Minerva Center for Complex Biohybrid Systems; The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Jerusalem 91904 Israel
| | - Ye Tian
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS); Key Laboratory of Organic Solids; Institute of Chemistry; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 P. R. China
| | - Lei Jiang
- Laboratory of Bioinspired Smart Interfacial Science; Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 P. R. China
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19
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Ryzhkov II, Lebedev DV, Solodovnichenko VS, Minakov AV, Simunin MM. On the origin of membrane potential in membranes with polarizable nanopores. J Memb Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2017.11.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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20
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Li SX, Guan W, Weiner B, Reed MA. Direct Observation of Charge Inversion in Divalent Nanofluidic Devices. NANO LETTERS 2015; 15:5046-5051. [PMID: 26101791 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b01115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Solid-state nanofluidic devices have proven to be ideal systems for studying the physics of ionic transport at the nanometer length scale. When the geometrical confining size of fluids approaches the ionic Debye screening length, new transport phenomena occur, such as surface mediated transport and permselectivity. Prior work has explored these effects extensively in monovalent systems (e.g., predominantly KCl and NaCl). In this report, we present a new characterization method for the study of divalent ionic transport and have unambiguously observed divalent charge inversion at solid/fluid interfaces. This observation has important implications in applications ranging from biology to energy conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Weihua Guan
- §Department of Electrical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania 16801, United States
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21
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Li D, Jing W, Li S, Shen H, Xing W. Electric Field-Controlled Ion Transport In TiO2 Nanochannel. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2015; 7:11294-11300. [PMID: 25961963 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b01505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
On the basis of biological ion channels, we constructed TiO2 membranes with rigid channels of 2.3 nm to mimic biomembranes with flexible channels; an external electric field was employed to regulate ion transport in the confined channels at a high ionic strength in the absence of electrical double layer overlap. Results show that transport rates for both Na+ and Mg2+ were decreased irrespective of the direction of the electric field. Furthermore, a voltage-gated selective ion channel was formed, the Mg2+ channel closed at -2 V, and a reversed relative electric field gradient was at the same order of the concentration gradient, whereas the Na+ with smaller Stokes radius and lower valence was less sensitive to the electric field and thus preferentially occupied and passed the channel. Thus, when an external electric field is applied, membranes with larger nanochannels have promising applications in selective separation of mixture salts at a high concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- State Key Lab of Material-Oriented Chemical Engineering, National Engineering Research Center for Special Separation Membrane, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiang Su 210009, China
| | - Wenheng Jing
- State Key Lab of Material-Oriented Chemical Engineering, National Engineering Research Center for Special Separation Membrane, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiang Su 210009, China
| | - Shuaiqiang Li
- State Key Lab of Material-Oriented Chemical Engineering, National Engineering Research Center for Special Separation Membrane, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiang Su 210009, China
| | - Hao Shen
- State Key Lab of Material-Oriented Chemical Engineering, National Engineering Research Center for Special Separation Membrane, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiang Su 210009, China
| | - Weihong Xing
- State Key Lab of Material-Oriented Chemical Engineering, National Engineering Research Center for Special Separation Membrane, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiang Su 210009, China
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22
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Doi K, Yano A, Kawano S. Electrohydrodynamic flow through a 1 mm(2) cross-section pore placed in an ion-exchange membrane. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:228-37. [PMID: 25412032 DOI: 10.1021/jp5071538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, the control of ionic currents has come to be recognized as one of the most important issues related to the efficient transport of single molecules and microparticles in aqueous solutions. However, the complicated liquid flows that are usually induced by applying electric potentials have made it difficult to address a number of unsolved problems in this area. In particular, the nonequilibrium phenomena that occur in electrically non-neutral fields must be more thoroughly understood. Herein, we report on the development of a theoretical model of liquid flows resulting from ion interactions while focusing on the so-called electrohydrodynamic (EHD) flow. We also discuss the development of an experimental system to optically and electrically observe EHD flows using a 1 mm(2) cross-section pore placed in an ion-exchange membrane where cation and anion flows can be separated without the use of a charged environment. Although micro/nanosized flow channels are usually applied to induce electric double layer overlaps to utilize strong electroosmotic effects, our system does not require such laborious fabrication processes. Instead, we visualize EHD flows by using a millimeter size pore immersed in an alkaline aqueous solution. In this setup, liquid flows passing through the pore along the direction of ion flow, whose velocity reaches on the order of 1 mm/s, can be clearly observed by applying a few volts of electric potential. Furthermore, the transient phenomena associated with ionic responses are theoretically elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Doi
- Department of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University , Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan
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23
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Atalay S, Yeh LH, Qian S. Proton enhancement in an extended nanochannel. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2014; 30:13116-13120. [PMID: 25295700 DOI: 10.1021/la503323z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Proton enhancement in an extended nanochannel is investigated by a continuum model consisting of three-dimensional Poisson-Nernst-Planck equations for the ionic mass transport of multiple ionic species with the consideration of surface chemistry on the nanochannel wall. The model is validated by the existing experimental data of the proton distribution inside an extended silica nanochannel. The proton enhancement behavior depends substantially on the background salt concentration, pH, and dimensions of the nanochannel. The proton enrichment at the center of the nanochannel is significant when the bulk pH is medium high (ca. 8) and the salt concentration is relatively low. The results gathered are informative for the development of biomimetic nanofluidic apparatuses and the interpretation of relevant experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selcuk Atalay
- Institute of Micro/Nanotechnology, Old Dominion University , Norfolk, Virginia 23529, United States
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24
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Li Y, Wang D, Kvetny MM, Brown W, Liu J, Wang G. History-dependent ion transport through conical nanopipettes and the implications in energy conversion dynamics at nanoscale interfaces. Chem Sci 2014; 6:588-595. [PMID: 28706626 PMCID: PMC5491961 DOI: 10.1039/c4sc02195a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The dynamics of ion transport at nanostructured substrate-solution interfaces play vital roles in high-density energy conversion, stochastic chemical sensing and biosensing, membrane separation, nanofluidics and fundamental nanoelectrochemistry. Further advancements in these applications require a fundamental understanding of ion transport at nanoscale interfaces. The understanding of the dynamic or transient transport, and the key physical process involved, is limited, which contrasts sharply with widely studied steady-state ion transport features at atomic and nanometer scale interfaces. Here we report striking time-dependent ion transport characteristics at nanoscale interfaces in current-potential (I-V) measurements and theoretical analyses. First, a unique non-zero I-V cross-point and pinched I-V curves are established as signatures to characterize the dynamics of ion transport through individual conical nanopipettes. Second, ion transport against a concentration gradient is regulated by applied and surface electrical fields. The concept of ion pumping or separation is demonstrated via the selective ion transport against concentration gradients through individual nanopipettes. Third, this dynamic ion transport process under a predefined salinity gradient is discussed in the context of nanoscale energy conversion in supercapacitor type charging-discharging, as well as chemical and electrical energy conversion. The analysis of the emerging current-potential features establishes the urgently needed physical foundation for energy conversion employing ordered nanostructures. The elucidated mechanism and established methodology can be generalized into broadly-defined nanoporous materials and devices for improved energy, separation and sensing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- Department of Chemistry , Georgia State University , P.O. Box 3965, 50 Decatur St. SE , Atlanta , Georgia 30303 , USA . ; Tel: +1-404-413-5507
| | - Dengchao Wang
- Department of Chemistry , Georgia State University , P.O. Box 3965, 50 Decatur St. SE , Atlanta , Georgia 30303 , USA . ; Tel: +1-404-413-5507
| | - Maksim M Kvetny
- Department of Chemistry , Georgia State University , P.O. Box 3965, 50 Decatur St. SE , Atlanta , Georgia 30303 , USA . ; Tel: +1-404-413-5507
| | - Warren Brown
- Department of Chemistry , Georgia State University , P.O. Box 3965, 50 Decatur St. SE , Atlanta , Georgia 30303 , USA . ; Tel: +1-404-413-5507
| | - Juan Liu
- Department of Chemistry , Georgia State University , P.O. Box 3965, 50 Decatur St. SE , Atlanta , Georgia 30303 , USA . ; Tel: +1-404-413-5507
| | - Gangli Wang
- Department of Chemistry , Georgia State University , P.O. Box 3965, 50 Decatur St. SE , Atlanta , Georgia 30303 , USA . ; Tel: +1-404-413-5507
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25
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Ma Y, Xue S, Hsu SC, Yeh LH, Qian S, Tan H. Programmable ionic conductance in a pH-regulated gated nanochannel. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:20138-46. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cp02349h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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26
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Guan W, Li SX, Reed MA. Voltage gated ion and molecule transport in engineered nanochannels: theory, fabrication and applications. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2014; 25:122001. [PMID: 24570414 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/25/12/122001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Nanochannels remain at the focus of growing scientific and technological interest. The nanometer scale of the structure allows the discovery of a new range of phenomena that has not been possible in traditional microchannels, among which a direct field effect control over the charges in nanochannels is very attractive for various applications, since it offers a unique opportunity to integrate wet ionics with dry electronics seamlessly. This review will focus on the voltage gated ionic and molecular transport in engineered gated nanochannels. We will present an overview of the transport theory. Fabrication techniques regarding the gated nanostructures will also be discussed. In addition, various applications using the voltage gated nanochannels are outlined, which involves biological and chemical analysis, and energy conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weihua Guan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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27
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Doi K, Tsutsui M, Ohshiro T, Chien CC, Zwolak M, Taniguchi M, Kawai T, Kawano S, Di Ventra M. Nonequilibrium Ionic Response of Biased Mechanically Controllable Break Junction (MCBJ) Electrodes. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2014; 118:3758-3765. [PMID: 24803976 PMCID: PMC3983323 DOI: 10.1021/jp409798t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Novel experimental techniques allow for the manipulation and interrogation of biomolecules between metallic probes immersed in micro/nanofluidic channels. The behavior of ions in response to applied fields is a major issue in the use of these techniques in sensing applications. Here, we experimentally and theoretically elucidate the behavior of background currents in these systems. These large currents have a slowly decaying transient response, as well as noise that increases with ionic concentration. Using mechanically controllable break junctions (MCBJ), we study the ionic response in nanogaps with widths ranging from a few nanometers to millimeters. Moreover, we obtain an expression for the ionic current by solving time-dependent Nernst-Planck and Poisson equations. This expression shows that after turning on an applied voltage, ions rapidly respond to the strong fields near the electrode surface, screening the field in the process. Ions subsequently translocate in the weak electric field and slowly relax within the diffusion layer. Our theoretical results help to explain the short- and long-time behavior of the ionic response found in experiments, as well as the various length scales involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Doi
- Department
of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering
Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan
| | - Makusu Tsutsui
- The
Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Takahito Ohshiro
- The
Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Chih-Chun Chien
- Theoretical
Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Mail Stop B213, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Michael Zwolak
- Department
of Physics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Masateru Taniguchi
- The
Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Tomoji Kawai
- The
Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Satoyuki Kawano
- Department
of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering
Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan
| | - Massimiliano Di Ventra
- Department
of Physics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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28
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Yeh LH, Hughes C, Zeng Z, Qian S. Tuning Ion Transport and Selectivity by a Salt Gradient in a Charged Nanopore. Anal Chem 2014; 86:2681-6. [DOI: 10.1021/ac4040136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hsien Yeh
- Department
of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin 64002, Taiwan
| | - Christopher Hughes
- Department
of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529, United States
| | - Zhenping Zeng
- School
of Electronic and Optical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, P. R. China
| | - Shizhi Qian
- Department
of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529, United States
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