Local probe oxidation of self-assembled monolayers on hydrogen-terminated silicon

Covalent immobilization of bromocresol purple on cellulose nanocrystals for use in pH-responsive indicator films

This study developed pH-indicator films by combining esterified cellulose nanocrystals (e-CNCs) with activated bromocresol purple (a-BCP) via covalent bonding for pH-sensitive color-changing applications. The e-CNC/a-BCP particles were incorporated into cellulose acetate polymer to prepare pH-sensitive color changing films. Binding of a-BCP to e-CNCs was proven by attenuated total reflection infrared (ATR-IR) spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Colorimetric analysis showed that films containing 10% or 15% e-CNC/a-BCP particles had critical color changes either at pH 4-5, or pH 7-8. The films with 10% e-CNC/a-BCP particles also revealed excellent leaching resistance under acidic conditions. Color changes were reversible between pH 2 and 10. These pH-indicator films had visible color changes in response to pH variations, color reversibility, leaching resistance, and sufficient rigidity even though mechanical properties decreased as the e-CNC/a-BCP content increased from 0% to 15%.

One-step methodology for the direct covalent capture of GPCRs from complex matrices onto solid surfaces based on the bioorthogonal reaction between haloalkane dehalogenase and chloroalkanes

An approach is established for the specific immobilization of GPCRs from cell lysates that circumvents labor intensive purification procedures and minimize loss of activity.

Protein immobilization techniques play an important role in the development of assays for disease diagnosis and drug discovery. However, many of these approaches are not applicable to transmembrane proteins. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest protein superfamily encoded by the human genome and are targeted by a quarter of all prescription drugs. GPCRs are highly dynamic and sensitive to changes in the ambient environment, and current immobilization methodologies are not suitable for GPCRs. We used haloalkane dehalogenase (Halo) as an immobilization tag fused to the β₂-adrenoceptor (β₂-AR), angiotensin II type 1 (AT₁) and angiotensin II type 2 (AT₂) receptors. The engineered Halo-tag covalently binds to a specific substrate chloroalkane through Asp 106 in the catalytic pocket. The Halo-tagged GPCRs were expressed in Escherichia coli at a suitable yield. Accordingly, we loaded cell lysate containing Halo-tagged GPCRs onto a macroporous silica gel coated with chloroalkane. Morphological characterization indicated a homogeneous monolayer of immobilized Halo-tagged GPCRs on the silica gel surface. The immobilized receptors proved to be surrounded by specific bound phospholipids including PG C18:1/C18:1. We observed a radio-ligand binding ability and ligand-induced conformational changes in the immobilized GPCRs, suggesting the preservation of bioactivity. This method is a one-step approach for the specific immobilization of GPCRs from cell lysates and validates that immobilized receptors retain canonical ligand binding capacity. Our immobilization strategy circumvents labor-intensive purification procedures and minimizes loss of activity. The immobilized receptors can be applied to high-throughput drug and interaction partner screening for GPCRs.

Selective surface modification of lithographic silicon oxide nanostructures by organofunctional silanes

This study investigates the controlled chemical functionalization of silicon oxide nanostructures prepared by AFM-anodization lithography of alkyl-terminated silicon. Different conditions for the growth of covalently bound mono-, multi- or submonolayers of distinctively functional silane molecules on nanostructures have been identified by AFM-height investigations. Routes for the preparation of methyl- or amino-terminated structures or silicon surfaces are presented and discussed. The formation of silane monolayers on nanoscopic silicon oxide nanostructures was found to be much more sensitive towards ambient humidity than, e.g., the silanization of larger OH-terminated silica surfaces. Amino-functionalized nanostructures have been successfully modified by the covalent binding of functional fluorescein dye molecules. Upon excitation, the dye-functionalized structures show only weak fluorescence, which may be an indication of a relatively low surface coverage of the dye molecules on length scale that is not accessible by standard AFM measurements.

Local scanning probe polymerization of an organic monolayer covalently grafted on silicon

The possibility of lateral extension of conjugation within a covalently grafted molecular layer by a scanning probe-based method was tested. A molecular layer derived from ω-(N-pyrrolyl)propanol was formed on n-type Si(111) surface. Application of large sample biases greater than ±4 V during conductive atomic force microscope (AFM) scans under vacuum resulted in changes of mechanical and electrical characteristics of the molecular layer: the tip-sample conductance was increased greatly, the friction was reduced significantly, and the surface potential of the scanned area was increased. The reduction in friction could be attributed to molecular linking formed within the layer. The increased conductance suggested extended conjugation among the pyrrolyl end groups. Therefore, it was inferred that the biased AFM scan successfully induced local polymerization/oligomerization within the covalently grafted molecular layer.

Detection and stability of nanoscale space charges in local oxidation nanolithography

We report on the stability of space charges within nanoscale silicon oxide patterns generated by atomic force microscope tip-induced local anodic oxidation of alkyl-terminated silicon. Surface potentials of these structures are investigated using two different approaches: Kelvin probe force microscopy and the spectroscopy of adsorbed charge-sensitive dye molecules. Both techniques prove that there is no decay of the space charge itself at least for several days. The apparent decrease of the surface potential measured with the Kelvin probe method is known to be influenced by the ambient humidity. It is supposed to be caused by a screening effect through the formation of a water layer. This is confirmed by our investigation of the surface potential decrease kinetics, which could be well fitted with an adapted model of water condensation. The fluorescence of the charge-sensitive dye di-4-ANEPPS, which is applied to the structures, shows a spectral shift of about 270 meV compared to an uncharged silicon oxide surface. The high stability of the charges supports the use of local anodic oxidation patterns as templates for selective immobilization of cationic species.

A bipolar electrochemical approach to constructive lithography: metal/monolayer patterns via consecutive site-defined oxidation and reduction

Experimental evidence is presented, demonstrating the feasibility of a surface-patterning strategy that allows stepwise electrochemical generation and subsequent in situ metallization of patterns of carboxylic acid functions on the outer surfaces of highly ordered OTS monolayers assembled on silicon or on a flexible polymeric substrate. The patterning process can be implemented serially with scanning probes, which is shown to allow nanoscale patterning, or in a parallel stamping configuration here demonstrated on micrometric length scales with granular metal film stamps sandwiched between two monolayer-coated substrates. The metal film, consisting of silver deposited by evaporation through a patterned contact mask on the surface of one of the organic monolayers, functions as both a cathode in the printing of the monolayer patterns and an anodic source of metal in their subsequent metallization. An ultrathin water layer adsorbed on the metal grains by capillary condensation from a humid atmosphere plays the double role of electrolyte and a source of oxidizing species in the pattern printing process. It is shown that control over both the direction of pattern printing and metal transfer to one of the two monolayer surfaces can be accomplished by simple switching of the polarity of the applied voltage bias. Thus, the patterned metal film functions as a consumable "floating" stamp capable of two-way (forward-backward) electrochemical transfer of both information and matter between the contacting monolayer surfaces involved in the process. This rather unusual electrochemical behavior, resembling the electrochemical switching in nanoionic devices based on the transport of ions in solid ionic-electronic conductors, is derived from the nanoscale thickness of the water layer acting as an electrolyte and the bipolar (cathodic-anodic) nature of the water-coated metal grains in the metal film. The floating stamp concept introduced in this report paves the way to a series of unprecedented capabilities in surface patterning, which are particularly relevant to nanofabrication by chemical means and the engineering of a new class of molecular nanoionic systems.

Bottom-up fabrication of redox-active metal complex oligomer wires on an H-terminated Si(111) surface

Linear and branched Fe(tpy)(2) complex oligomer wires were quantitatively formed on hydrogen-terminated silicon wafers by means of hydrosilylation of ethynylterpyridine and following stepwise coordination reactions, and the redox property of surface-attached species and its photosensitivity can be controlled by the doping density of the silicon wafers.

Conductive AFM patterning on oligo(ethylene glycol)-terminated alkyl monolayers on silicon substrates: proposed mechanism and fabrication of avidin patterns

Micro- and nanopatterns of biomolecules on inert, ultrathin platforms on nonoxidized silicon are ideal interfaces between silicon-based microelectronics and biological systems. We report here the local oxidation nanolithography with conductive atomic force microscopy (cAFM) on highly protein-resistant, oligo(ethylene glycol) (OEG)-terminated alkyl monolayers on nonoxidized silicon substrates. We propose a mechanism for this process, suggesting that it is possible to oxidize only the top ethylene glycol units to generate carboxylic acid and aldehyde groups on the film surface. We show that avidin molecules can be attached selectively to the oxidized pattern and the density can be varied by altering the bias voltage during cAFM patterning. Biotinylated molecules and nanoparticles are selectively immobilized on the resultant avidin patterns. Since one of the most established methods for immobilization of biomolecules is based on avidin-biotin binding and a wide variety of biotinylated biomolecules are available, this approach represents a versatile means for prototyping any nanostructures presenting these biomolecules on silicon substrates.

Micro- and nanopatterning of functional organic monolayers on oxide-free silicon by laser-induced photothermal desorption

The photothermal laser patterning of functional organic monolayers, prepared on oxide-free hydrogen-terminated silicon, and subsequent backfilling of the laser-written lines with a second organic monolayer that differs in its terminal functionality, is described. Since the thermal monolayer decomposition process is highly nonlinear in the applied laser power density, subwavelength patterning of the organic monolayers is feasible. After photothermal laser patterning of hexadecenyl monolayers, the lines freed up by the laser are backfilled with functional acid fluoride monolayers. Coupling of cysteamine to the acid fluoride groups and subsequent attachment of Au nanoparticles allows easy characterization of the functional lines by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Depending on the laser power and writing speed, functional lines with widths between 1.1 μm and 250 nm can be created. In addition, trifluoroethyl-terminated (TFE) monolayers are also patterned. Subsequently, the decomposed lines are backfilled with a nonfunctional hexadecenyl monolayer, the TFE stripes are converted into thiol stripes, and then finally covered with Au nanoparticles. By reducing the lateral distance between the laser lines, Au-nanoparticle stripes with widths close to 100 nm are obtained. Finally, in view of the great potential of this type of monolayer in the field of biosensing, the ease of fabricating biofunctional patterns is demonstrated by covalent binding of fluorescently labeled oligo-DNA to acid-fluoride-backfilled laser lines, which--as shown by fluorescence microscopy--is accessible for hybridization.

Photothermal micro- and nanopatterning of organic/silicon interfaces

Photothermal laser processing of organic monolayers on oxide-free silicon substrates under ambient conditions is investigated. Organic monolayers on Si(100) and Si(111) substrates are prepared via hydrosilylation of H-terminated silicon samples in neat 1-hexadecene and 1-hexadecyne, respectively. Laser processing at lambda = 514 nm and a 1/e(2) spot diameter of 2.6 microm results in local decomposition of the monolayers and oxidation of the exposed substrate. In agreement with the high thermal and chemical stability of these monolayers, a thermokinetic analysis of the data from experiments at distinct laser powers and pulse lengths points to a highly activated process. As a result, processing is strongly nonlinear and allows for subwavelength patterning, with line widths between 0.4 and 1.4 microm. Most remarkably, upon fabrication of dense line patterns, narrow organic monolayer stripes with sharp edges and lateral dimensions of 80 nm are formed. This opens up new perspectives in photothermal engineering of organic/silicon interfaces, e.g., for hybrid microelectronic and sensor applications.