2-Nitro Thioglycoside Donors: Versatile Precursors of β-d-Glycosides of Aminosugars

Organocatalysis applied to carbohydrates: from roots to current developments

Organocatalysis emerged in the last decade as a powerful tool for the synthesis of complex molecules. In the field of carbohydrates, it found widespread use in the synthesis of rare and non-natural carbohydrate derivatives. Additionally, it has also found important application in the stereoselective functionalization of the anomeric carbon in glycosylation reactions. These efforts culminated in the development of different types of catalysts operating through distinct activation modes that allow the selective synthesis of α- or β-glycosides even on daunting substrates. All these advances starting from its first examples in carbohydrate synthesis to the current developments in glycosylation reactions are reviewed.

N-Heterocyclic Carbene Catalyzed Stereoselective Glycosylation of 2-Nitrogalactals

An efficient N-heterocyclic carbene catalyzed glycosylation of 2-nitrogalactals with alcohols and phenol has been developed for the first time. A wide variety of 1,2-cis-2-nitroglycosides can be obtained with good to excellent yields and high to excellent α-selectivities.

Recent Advances Toward Robust N-Protecting Groups for Glucosamine as Required for Glycosylation Strategies

2-Amino-2-deoxy-d-glucose (d-glucosamine) is among the most abundant monosaccharides found in natural products. This constituent, recognized for its ubiquity, is presented in most instances as its N-acetyl derivative 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-d-glucopyranose (N-acetylglucosamine, GlcNAc, NAG). It occurs as the β-linked pyranosyl group in polysaccharides and oligosaccharides, and sometimes as the monosaccharide itself, either in its native state or as a glycoconjugate. The compound's acylation profile and other aspects of its structure are important elements in determining the variety of reactivities and functions of the molecule as a whole. Methods elaborated to investigate these challenges have been intensively reviewed; however, a relatively more comprehensive reviewing of this subject is introduced here to cover some aspects that have not been sufficiently covered. This might enable those who are beginners in this field to be aware of the subject in a more comprehensive context. 2-Amino-2-deoxy-d-glucosylation strategies demand robust amino-protecting groups that survive under a variety of chemical conditions, yet provide groups that can be deprotected under relatively mild conditions. At the end of this review, a table that includes all the N-protecting groups that have been used for glucosamine is provided to introduce them at a glance to aid in constructing building blocks that will act as useful 2-amino-2-deoxy-d-glucosyl donors.

From glycals to aminosugars: a challenging test for new stereoselective aminohydroxylation and related methodologies

The most relevant methods to access 1-, 2-, 3-amino or 1,2-diaminosugars starting from unsaturated carbohydrates are concisely reviewed; the given examples illustrate the great challenges offered to several stereoselective strategies.

2-Nitro-thioglycosides: α- and β-selective generation and their potential as β-selective glycosyl donors

Michael-type addition of thiolates to 2-nitro-D-glucal or to 2-nitro-D-galactal derivatives readily provides 2-deoxy-2-nitro-1-thioglycosides. Kinetic and thermodynamic reaction control permitted formation of either the α- or preferentially the β-anomers, respectively. Addition of achiral and chiral thiourea derivatives to the reaction mixture increased the reaction rate; the outcome is substrate-controlled. The 2-deoxy-2-nitro-1-thioglycosides are excellent glycosyl donors under arylsulfenyl chloride/silver triflate (ArSCl/AgOTf) activation, and they provide, anchimerically assisted by the nitro group, mostly β-glycosides.

N-Heterocyclic carbene catalyzed C-glycosylation: a concise approach from Stetter reaction

Described herein is the first example of an organocatalytic approach for acylanion addition to the anomeric carbon of 2-nitroglucal using an N-heterocyclic carbene catalyst. Control over the reaction conditions gives β-selective and nitro-eliminated C-glycosides, providing opportunities to produce new classes of C-glycoside.

Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: An update for 2003-2004

This review is the third update of the original review, published in 1999, on the application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings the topic to the end of 2004. Both fundamental studies and applications are covered. The main topics include methodological developments, matrices, fragmentation of carbohydrates and applications to large polymeric carbohydrates from plants, glycans from glycoproteins and those from various glycolipids. Other topics include the use of MALDI MS to study enzymes related to carbohydrate biosynthesis and degradation, its use in industrial processes, particularly biopharmaceuticals and its use to monitor products of chemical synthesis where glycodendrimers and carbohydrate-protein complexes are highlighted.

2-nitroglycals as powerful glycosyl donors: application in the synthesis of biologically important molecules

[Reaction: see text]. The biological significance of oligosaccharides and glycoconjugates is profound and wide-ranging. For example, the mucins have attracted attention because of their role in fundamental cellular processes such as fertilization, parasitic infection, inflammation, immune defense, cell growth, and cell-cell adhesion. Increased expression of mucins is implicated in malignant transformation of cells. Antifreeze glycoproteins also are of interest because they are important for the survival of many marine teleost fishes that live in polar and subpolar waters. The synthesis of glycoconjugates requires methods for glycoside bond formation, the most difficult aspect of which is the assembly of monosaccharide building blocks. This Account discusses a valuable addition to the repertoire of methods for glycoconjugate synthesis: an approach that involves 2-nitroglycal concatenation. For a long time, methods for glycosylation via glycosyl donor generation required either an anomeric oxygen exchange reaction or anomeric oxygen retention. In the case of an anomeric oxygen exchange reaction, activation of the glycosyl donors demands a promoter in at least equimolar amounts. However, anomeric oxygen retention, such as base-catalyzed formation of O-glycosyl trichloroacetimidates, can be activated by catalytic amounts of acid or Lewis acid. Alternatively, glycals, which are readily available from sugars, can be an attractive starting material for glycoside bond formation. Their nucleophilic character at C-2 permits reactions with oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur electrophiles that under high substrate stereocontrol generally lead to three-membered rings; ring opening under acid catalysis furnishes the corresponding glycosides, whichdepending on the electrophile Xare also employed for 2-deoxyglycoside synthesis. Glycals also can be transformed into derivatives that have at C-2 an electron-withdrawing group and are amenable to Michael-type addition. A good example are 2-nitroglycals. In this case, glycoside bond formation is achieved under base catalysis and leads to 2-deoxy-2-nitroglycosides. These intermediates are readily converted into 2-amino-2-deoxyglycosides, which are constituents of almost all glycoconjugates. This 2-nitroglycal concatenation has been extensively investigated with 2-nitrogalactal derivatives. When alcohols are used as nucleophiles and strong bases used as catalysts, the result is primarily or exclusively the alpha-galacto-configured adducts. Some studies show that weaker bases may lead to preferential formation of the beta-galacto-configured products instead. The reaction was very successfully extended to other nucleophiles and also to other 2-nitroglycals that undergo base-catalyzed stereoselective Michael-type additions. Thus, 2-nitroglycals are versatile synthons in glycoconjugate and natural-products synthesis, and it is foreseeable that many more applications will be based on these readily available and highly functionalized skeletons.

Serine versus Threonine Glycosylation: The Methyl Group Causes a Drastic Alteration on the Carbohydrate Orientation and on the Surrounding Water Shell

Different behavior has been observed for the psi torsion angle of the glycosidic linkages of D-GalNAc-Ser and D-GalNAc-Thr motifs, allowing the carbohydrate moiety to adopt a completely different orientation. In addition, the fact that the water pockets found in alpha-D-GalNAc-Thr differ from those obtained for its serine analogue could be related to the different capability that the two model glycopeptides have to structure the surrounding water. This fact could have important biological inferences (i.e., antifreeze activity).

Recent trends in the synthesis of O-glycosides of 2-amino-2-deoxysugars

The discovery of new methods for stereoselective glycoside synthesis and convergent oligosaccharide assembly has been critical for the area of glycosciences. At the heart of this account is the discussion of the approaches for stereoselective synthesis of glycosides of 2-amino-2-deoxysugars that have emerged during the past two decades. The introductory part provides general background information and describes the key features and challenges for the synthesis of this class of compounds. Subsequently, major approaches to the synthesis of 2-amino-2-deoxyglycosides are categorized and discussed. Each subsection elaborates on the introduction (or protection) of the amino functionality, synthesis of glycosyl donors by introduction of a suitable leaving group, and glycosidation. Wherever applicable, the deprotection of a temporary amino group substituent and the conversion onto the natural acetamido functionality is described. The conclusions part evaluates the current standing in the field and provides a perspective for future developments.

Chemoselective synthesis of oligosaccharides of 2-deoxy-2-aminosugars

Along with the application of the S-benzoxazolyl glycosides to the high-yielding synthesis of disaccharides of the 2-amino-2-deoxy series, chemoselective assembly of oligosaccharides containing multiple residues of 2-amino-2-deoxyglycoses is reported. This modified armed-disarmed approach is relying on the observation that 2-N-trichloroethoxycarbonyl derivatives of S-benzoxazolyl glycosides are significantly more reactive than their 2-N-phthaloyl counterparts in MeOTf-promoted glycosylations. This allowed efficient chemoselective synthesis of 1,2-trans-linked oligosaccharides, the disarmed reducing end of which can be activated for immediate second step glycosidation in the presence of a more powerful activator, AgOTf. As a result of this two-step activation, trans-trans-patterned trisaccharides could be assembled in a highly efficient manner. This result differs from the classic armed-disarmed technique, according to which usually cis-trans-patterned oligosaccharides are generated.