Anodic Electrochemistry of Multiferrocenyl Phosphine and Phosphine Chalcogenide Complexes in Weakly Nucleophilic Electrolytes

Synthesis, Structure, Reactivity, and Intramolecular Donor-Acceptor Interactions in a Phosphinoferrocene Stibine and Its Corresponding Phosphine Chalcogenides and Stiboranes

Ferrocene-based phosphines equipped with additional functional groups are versatile ligands for coordination chemistry and catalysis. This contribution describes a new compound of this type, combining phosphine and stibine groups at the ferrocene backbone, viz. 1-(diphenylphosphino)-1'-(diphenylstibino)ferrocene (1). Phosphinostibine 1 and the corresponding P-chalcogenide derivatives Ph2P(E)fcSbPh2 (1E, fc = ferrocene-1,1'-diyl, E = O, S, Se) were synthesized and further converted to the corresponding stiboranes Ph2P(E)fcSb(O2C6Cl4)Ph2 (6 and 6E) by oxidation with o-chloranil. All compounds were characterized by spectroscopic methods, X-ray diffraction analysis, cyclic voltammetry, and theoretical methods. Both NMR spectroscopy and DFT calculations confirmed the presence of P → Sb and P═O → Sb donor-acceptor interactions in 6 and 6O, triggered by the oxidation of the stibine moiety into Lewis acidic stiborane. The corresponding interactions in 6S and 6Se were of the same type but significantly weaker. A coordination study with AuCl as the model metal fragment revealed that the phosphine group acts as the "primary" coordination site, in line with its higher basicity. The obtained Au(I) complexes were applied as catalysts in the Au-catalyzed cyclization of N-propargylbenzamide and in the oxidative [2 + 2 + 1] cyclization of ethynylbenzene with acetonitrile and pyridine N-oxides. The catalytic results showed that the stibine complexes had worse catalytic performance than their phosphine counterparts, most likely due to the formation of weaker coordination bonds and hence poorer stabilization of the active metal species. Nevertheless, the stibine moiety could be used to fine-tune the properties of the ligated metal center by changing the oxidation state or substituents at the "remote" Sb atom.

Estimating Effective Steric and Electronic Impacts of a Ferrocenyl Group in Organophosphines

A series of monodentate ferrocenylphosphines, Fc₃P (1a), Fc₂PhP (1b), and Fc₂ArP (1c; Fc = ferrocenyl, Ar = 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl), were prepared, and their electronic and steric properties were quantitatively determined. By the IR measurements of their respective Ni(CO)₃(phosphine) complexes, the electronic properties of the ferrocenyl group in organophosphines were estimated to be similar to those of primary alkyl groups. The ferrocenyl group is a better electron donor than a methyl group and a poorer donor than an ethyl group. The gold(I) chloride complexes of 1a-c were prepared and their X-ray crystal structures were determined. The %V _bur parameters for 1a-c were calculated using the X-ray structural data, and their ″Tolman cone angles″ were estimated. The steric influence of the ferrocenyl group in organophosphines was clarified to be larger than those of cyclohexyl, tert-butyl, and o-tolyl groups and is comparable to that of a mesityl group.

The core of the matter - arene substitution determines the coordination and catalytic behaviour of tris(1-phosphanyl-1'-ferrocenylene)arene gold(I) complexes

Changing the aromatic core of C3-symmetric tris(ferrocenyl)arene-based tris-phosphanes has profound effects on their coordination behaviour towards gold(i). Depending on the arene (s-triazine, benzene, or trifluorobenzene), four different coordination modes can be distinguished and their preference has been rationalised using computational methods. The corresponding 1 : 1 ligand-to-metal complexes, studied by variable-temperature NMR spectroscopy, revealed fluctional behaviour in solution. Given the presence of up to three or six ferrocenylene spacers per complex, their electrochemistry was investigated. The redox-responsive nature of the complexes can be advantageously exploited in the catalytic ring-closing isomerisation of N-(2-propyn-1-yl)benzamide, where the benzene-based 2 : 3 ligand-to-metal complex has been shown to display multiple activity states depending on the degree of (reversible) oxidation in a preliminary trial.

Triple the fun: tris(ferrocenyl)arene-based gold(i) complexes for redox-switchable catalysis

The modular syntheses of C₃-symmetric tris(ferrocenyl)arene-based tris-phosphanes and their homotrinuclear gold(i) complexes are reported. Choosing the arene core allows fine-tuning of the exact oxidation potentials and thus tailoring of the electrochemical response. The tris[chloridogold(i)] complexes were investigated in the catalytic ring-closing isomerisation of N-(2-propyn-1-yl)benzamide, showing cooperative behaviour vs. a mononuclear chloridogold(i) complex. Adding one, two, or three equivalents of 1,1′-diacetylferrocenium[tetrakis(perfluoro-tert-butoxy)aluminate] as an oxidant during the catalytic reaction (in situ) resulted in a distinct, stepwise influence on the resulting catalytic rates. Isolation of the oxidised species is possible, and using them as (pre-)catalysts (ex situ oxidation) confirmed the activity trend. Proving the intactness of the P–Au–Cl motif during oxidation, the tri-oxidised benzene-based complex has been structurally characterised.

Trinuclear gold(i) complexes of C₃-symmetric tris(ferrocenyl)arene-based tris-phosphanes with four accessible oxidation states catalyse the ring-closing isomerisation of N-(2-propyn-1-yl)benzamide with different rates depending on their redox state.

Tricoordinate Coinage Metal Complexes with a Redox-Active Tris-(Ferrocenyl)triazine Backbone Feature Triazine-Metal Interactions

2,4,6-Tris(1-diphenylphosphanyl-1'-ferrocenylene)-1,3,5-triazine (1) coordinates all three coinage metal(I) ions in a 1:1 tridentate coordination mode. The C3 -symmetric coordination in both solid state and solution is stabilised by an uncommon cation-π interaction between the triazine core and the metal cation. Intramolecular dynamic behaviour was observed by variable-temperature NMR spectroscopy. The borane adduct of 1, 1BH3 , displays four accessible oxidation states, suggesting complexes of 1 to be intriguing candidates for redox-switchable catalysis. Complexes 1Cu, 1Ag, and 1Au display a more complicated electrochemical behaviour, and the electrochemical mechanism was studied by temperature-resolved UV/Vis spectroelectrochemistry and chemical oxidation.

Bulky 1,1'-bisphosphanoferrocenes and their coordination behaviour towards Cu(i)

Two bulky mesityl substituted dppf-analogues Fe(C₅H₄PMes₂)₂ (Mes = 2,4,6-Me₃C₆H₂, 1) and Fe(C₅H₄PMes₂)(C₅H₄PPh₂) (Mes = 2,4,6-Me₃C₆H₂, Ph = C₆H₅, 3) have been prepared and their properties as donor ligands have been explored using heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy and in particular via¹J_P-Se coupling, cyclic voltammetry and DFT calculations. Based on the results obtained, a series of mono- and dinuclear Cu(i) complexes have been prepared with these new diphosphane ligands using Br^-, I^-, and BF₄^- as counter anions. For the very bulky ligand 1 rare and unprecedented double bridging complexation modes have been observed containing two non-planar Cu₂Br₂ units, while for the other dinuclear complexes planar Cu₂Br₂ units have been found. The Cu(i) complexes of 1 and 3 were then used as catalysts for CO₂-fixation reaction with terminal alkynes, and complexes with ligand 3 were found to be more efficient than those with 1. DFT calculations performed on compounds 1, 3 and their Cu(i) complexes were able to verify the trend of these catalytic reactions.

Bis-[3]Ferrocenophanes with Central >E-E'< Bonds (E, E'=P, SiH): Preparation, Properties, and Thermal Activation

A series of bis-[3]ferrocenophanes of the general type Fe(C5H4E')2E-E(E'C5H4)2Fe (E=P, SiH and E'=PtBu, NneoPentyl, NSi(CH3)3) with an isolobal molecular framework have been prepared and characterized by heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. The thermal dissociation behavior with respect to homolytic fission of the central bond generating phosphorus centered radicals was investigated using EPR spectroscopy and quantum chemical calculations.

Electrochemical, Spectroelectrochemical, Mößbauer, and EPR Spectroscopic Studies on Ferrocenyl-Substituted Tritylium Dyes

Four monoferrocenyl tritylium derivatives with donor-substituted (OMe, NMe₂ ) aryl rings are reported, along with their spectroscopic and electrochemical properties. All the complexes show a one-electron reduction and a quasi-reversible ferrocene oxidation at a very positive potential. Small quadrupole splittings, ΔE_Q , in Mößbauer spectra agree with highly electron-deficient ferrocenes. Comparison of the experimental half-wave potentials for ferrocene oxidation, E_1/2 (Fc/Fc⁺ ), with those estimated from established correlations of E_1/2 (Fc/Fc⁺ ) with ΔE_Q indicates that the E_1/2 values of the anisyl-substituted congeners FcOMe⁺ and FcMeOMe⁺ are affected by Coulombic repulsion between the positive charges at the Fe ion and the neighboring methylium site. Electronic spectra are recorded and interpreted with the aid of quantum chemical calculations. UV/Vis spectroelectrochemical measurements as well as chemical reduction provide insight into the redox-induced color changes upon ferrocene oxidation or upon reduction to the neutral trityl radicals. The neutral radicals reversibly form EPR-silent dimers. This process is studied by temperature-dependent EPR spectroscopy, and thermodynamic data for their dimerization are determined. Experimental and quantum chemical data suggest that the dimers assume classical hexaarylethane structures as opposed to normal or "offset" Jacobson-Nauta-type structures.

Can Electrochemical Measurements Be Used To Predict X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopic Data? The Case of Ferrocenyl-β-Diketonato Complexes of Manganese(III)

In order to better understand intramolecular communication between molecular fragments, a series of ferrocene-functionalized β-diketonato manganese(III) complexes, [Mn(FcCOCHCOR)₃] with R = CF₃, 1, CH₃, 2, Ph = C₆H₅, 3, and Fc = Fe^II(η⁵-C₅H₄)(η⁵-C₅H₅), 4, the mixed ligand β-diketonato complex [Mn(FcCOCHCOFc)₂(FcCOCHCOCH₃)], 5, as well as the acac complex [Mn(CH₃COCHCOCH₃)₃], 6, were subjected to an electrochemical and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) study. The ferrocenyl (Fe^II) and Mn^III redox potentials, E°', and photoelectron lines were sufficiently resolved in each complex to demonstrate a linear correlation between E°' and group electronegativities of ligand R groups, χ_R, or Σχ_R, as well as with binding energies of both the Fe 2p_3/2 and Mn 2p_3/2 photoelectron lines. These relationships are consistent with effective communication between molecular fragments of 1-5. From these relationships, prediction of Mn and Fe core electron binding energies in [Mn(R¹COCHCOR²)₃] complexes from known manganese and/or ferrocenyl redox potentials are, therefore, now possible. Ligand infrared carbonyl stretching frequencies were successfully related to binding energy as a measure of the energy required for inner-sphere reorganization. In particular it became possible to explain why, upon electrochemical oxidation or photoionization, the ferrocenyl Fe^II inner-shell of 1-5 needs more energy in complexes with ligands bearing electron-withdrawing (CF₃) groups than in ligands bearing electron-donating groups such as ferrocenyl. The XPS determined entity I_ratio (the ratio between the intensities of the satellite and main metal 2p_3/2 photoelectron lines) is an indication not only of the amount of charge transferred, but also of the degree of inner-sphere reorganization. Just as for binding energy, the quantity I_ratio was also found to be related to the energy requirements for the inner-sphere reorganization depicted by the vibrational frequency, v_co.

PBP bridged [3]ferrocenophane: a bisphosphanylborane with a redox trigger

Stereospecific access to the unprecedented P-B-P bridged [3]ferrocenophane Fe(C₅H₄PtBu)₂BMes is presented. In contrast to acyclic ferrocenylphosphanes, we find evidence for a shift of spin-density from Fe to P upon pyramidal inversion of the P centers in the mono-cation; the latter has a lifetime of τ = 0.31(4) s.

Hydrogen Production Catalyzed by Bidirectional, Biomimetic Models of the [FeFe]-Hydrogenase Active Site

Active site mimics of [FeFe]-hydrogenase are shown to be bidirectional catalysts, producing H₂ upon treatment with protons and reducing equivalents. This reactivity complements the previously reported oxidation of H₂ by these same catalysts in the presence of oxidants. The complex Fe₂(adt^Bn)(CO)₃(dppv)(PFc*^Et₂ ) ([1]⁰; adt^Bn = (SCH₂)₂NBn, dppv = cis-1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)ethylene, PFc*^Et₂ = Et₂PCH₂C₅Me₄FeCp*) reacts with excess [H(OEt₂)₂]BAr^F₄ (BAr^F₄^- = B(C₆H₃-3,5-(CF₃)₂)₄^-) to give ∼0.5 equiv of H₂ and [Fe₂(adt^BnH)(CO)₃(dppv)(PFc*^Et₂ )]²⁺ ([1H]²⁺). The species [1H]²⁺ consists of a ferrocenium ligand, an N-protonated amine, and an Fe^IFe^I core. In the presence of additional reducing equivalents in the form of decamethylferrocene (Fc*), hydrogen evolution is catalytic, albeit slow. The related catalyst Fe₂(adt^Bn)(CO)₃(dppv)(PMe₃) (3) behaves similarly in the presence of Fc*, except that in the absence of excess reducing agent it converts to the catalytically inactive μ-hydride derivative [μ-H3]⁺. Replacement of the adt in [1]⁰ with propanedithiolate (pdt) results in a catalytically inactive complex. In the course of synthesizing [FeFe]-hydrogenase mimics, new routes to ferrocenylphosphine ligands and nonamethylferrocene were developed.

Electrochemical evidence of intramolecular electronic communication in Zr and Hf phthalocyanines bearing ferrocene-containing β-diketonato axial ligands: structure of [PcHf(FcCOCHCOC6H5)2]

The series of zirconium(IV) and hafnium(IV) phthalocyanine complexes [PcM(FcCOCHCOR)2] (Pc = phthalocyaninato; M = Zr; R = CF3 (1), CH3 (2), C6H5 (3), Fc ((C5H5)Fe(C5H4), 4), as well as M = Hf ; R = CF3 (5), CH3 (6), C6H5 (7), and Fc (8)) were synthesized. A single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis of the structure of [PcHf(FcCOCHCOC6H5)2], 7 (Z = 2, space group P1), showed the two axial β-diketonato ligands were orientated in such a way that the ferrocenyl groups were positioned diagonally opposite each other. From the structural determination of 7 it was clear that these complexes have a distorted D4h symmetry at the coordination site of the metal centers, which explains a splitting of the UV-vis Q band into Qx and Qy components with 3 ≤ Δλ(max,Q) ≤ 10 nm. Cyclic and square wave voltammetric studies in CH2Cl2/[N((n)Bu)4][B(C6F5)4] allowed observation of at least three phthalocyaninato macrocycle-based redox couples as well as all (i.e., two or four) well-resolved ferrocenyl couples in 1-8. For M = Zr and R = Fc, formal reduction potentials of the four ferrocenyl groups were found to be E°' = 296, 386, 538, and 687 mV versus free ferrocene. Spectroelectrochemical evidence, UV-vis Q-band maximum wavelengths, and HOMO-LUMO energy gaps as expressed by ΔE°'I-III = ΔE°'wave I - ΔE°'wave III were mutually consistent, indicating that the first phthalocyaninato ring-based oxidation occurs before ferrocenyl oxidations take place. The potential for each redox process was found to be dependent on the sum of β-diketonato R-group group electronegativities, ΣχR. Mathematical relationships for the dependency of E°' on ΣχR for all four observed ring-based redox processes as well as for the ferrocenyl-based redox processes were determined. This allowed prediction of potentials for redox processes that fall outside the workable potential window of the solvent. No significant differences were found between the corresponding redox potentials of zirconium and hafnium analogues bearing the same axial ligands.

Efficient cluster-based catalysts for asymmetric hydrogenation of α-unsaturated carboxylic acids

The new clusters [H(4)Ru(4)(CO)(10)(μ-1,2-P-P)], [H(4)Ru(4)(CO)(10) (1,1-P-P)] and [H(4)Ru(4)(CO)(11)(P-P)] (P-P=chiral diphosphine of the ferrocene-based Josiphos or Walphos ligand families) have been synthesised and characterised. The crystal and molecular structures of eleven clusters reveal that the coordination modes of the diphosphine in the [H(4)Ru(4)(CO)(10)(μ-1,2-P-P)] clusters are different for the Josiphos and the Walphos ligands. The Josiphos ligands bridge a metal-metal bond of the ruthenium tetrahedron in the "conventional" manner, that is, with both phosphine moieties coordinated in equatorial positions relative to a triangular face of the tetrahedron, whereas the phosphine moieties of the Walphos ligands coordinate in one axial and one equatorial position. The differences in the ligand size and the coordination mode between the two types of ligands appear to be reflected in a relative propensity for isomerisation; in solution, the [H(4)Ru(4)(CO)(10)(1,1-Walphos)] clusters isomerise to the corresponding [H(4)Ru(4)(CO)(10)(μ-1,2-Walphos)] clusters, whereas the Josiphos-containing clusters show no tendency to isomerisation in solution. The clusters have been tested as catalysts for asymmetric hydrogenation of four prochiral α-unsaturated carboxylic acids and the prochiral methyl ester (E)-methyl 2-methylbut-2-enoate. High conversion rates (>94%) and selectivities of product formation were observed for almost all catalysts/catalyst precursors. The observed enantioselectivities were low or nonexistent for the Josiphos-containing clusters and catalyst (cluster) recovery was low, suggesting that cluster fragmentation takes place. On the other hand, excellent conversion rates (99-100%), product selectivities (99-100% in most cases) and good enantioselectivities, reaching 90% enantiomeric excess (ee) in certain cases, were observed for the Walphos-containing clusters, and the clusters could be recovered in good yield after completed catalysis. Results from high-pressure NMR and IR studies, catalyst poisoning tests and comparison of catalytic properties of two [H(4)Ru(4)(CO)(10)(μ-1,2-P-P)] clusters (P-P=Walphos ligands) with the analogous mononuclear catalysts [Ru(P-P)(carboxylato)(2)] suggest that these clusters may be the active catalytic species, or direct precursors of an active catalytic cluster species.

Electrochemical illumination of intramolecular communication in ferrocene-containing tris-β-diketonato aluminum(III) complexes; cytotoxicity of Al(FcCOCHCOCF3)3

The series of ferrocene-containing tris-β-diketonato aluminum(III) complexes [Al(FcCOCHCOR)(3)] (R = CF(3), 1; CH(3), 2; C(6)H(5), 3; and Fc = ferrocenyl = Fe(η(5)-C(5)H(5))(η(5)-C(5)H(4)), 4) were synthesized and investigated structurally and electrochemically; complex 1 was subjected to cytotoxicity tests. (1)H NMR-spectroscopy distinguished between the mer and fac isomers of 2 and 3. Complex 1 existed only as the mer isomer. A single crystal X-ray crystallographic determination of the structure of a mer-isomer of Al(FcCOCHCOCF(3))(3), 1, (Z = 4, space group P2(1)2(1)2(1)) demonstrated extensive delocalization of all bonds which explained the pronounced electrochemically observed intramolecular communication between molecular fragments. In contrast to electrochemical studies in CH(2)Cl(2)/[N((n)Bu)(4)][PF(6)], the use of the supporting electrolyte [N((n)Bu)(4)][B(C(6)F(5))(4)] allowed identification of all Fc/Fc(+) electrochemical couples by cyclic and square wave voltammetry for 1-4. For R = Fc, formal reduction potentials of the six ferrocenyl groups were found to be E°' = 33, 123, 304, 432, 583, and 741 mV versus free ferrocene respectively. Complex 1 (IC(50) = 10.6 μmol dm(-3)) was less cytotoxic than the free FcCOCH(2)COCF(3) ligand having IC(50) = 6.8 μmol dm(-3) and approximately 2 orders of magnitude less toxic to human HeLa neoplastic cells than cisplatin (IC(50) = 0.19 μmol dm(-3)).

Ferrocenyl-terminated redox stars: synthesis and electrostatic effects in mixed-valence stabilization

A family of rigid ferrocenyl-terminated redox stars has been synthesized--by Negishi coupling, including hexa(ferrocenethynyl)benzene complexes, a dodecaferrocenyl star, and stars with extended rigid tethers--and fully characterized. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) studies of the parent complex hexa(ferrocenylethynyl)benzene, 1, show a single wave for the six-electron oxidation of 1 using Nn-Bu(4)PF(6) as the supporting electrolyte on a Pt anode in CH(2)Cl(2), whereas three distinct two-electron reversible CV waves are observed using Nn-Bu(4)BAr(F)(4) (Ar(F) = 3,5-C(6)H(3)-(CF(3))(2)). The CV of 1,3,5-tris(ferrocenylethynyl)benzene, 11, also shows only one wave for the three-electron transfer with Nn-Bu(4)PF(6) and three one-electron waves using Nn-Bu(4)BAr(F)(4). This confirms the lack of electronic communication between the ferrocenyl groups and a significant electrostatic effect among the oxidized ferrocenyl groups. This effect is not significant between para-ferrocenyl groups in 1,4-bis(ferrocenylethynyl)benzene for which only a single wave is observed even with Nn-Bu(4)BAr(F)(4) as the supporting electrolyte. The para-ferrocenyl substituents are quite independent, which explains that two para-ferrocenyl groups are oxidized at about the same potential in a single CV wave of 1. With the additional steric bulk introduced with a methyl substituent on the ferrocenyl group, however, even the para-methylferrocenyl groups are submitted to a small electrostatic effect splitting the six-electron transfer into six single-electron waves, probably because of the overall steroelectronic constraints. Contrary to 11, 1,3-bis(ferrocenylethynyl)benzene and related complexes with a third, different substituent in the remaining meta position different from a ferrocenylethynyl only show a single two-electron wave using Nn-Bu(4)BAr(F)(4), which is attributed to the transoïd conformation of the ferricinium groups minimizing the electrostatic effect. This shows that, in 11, it is the steric frustration that is responsible for the electrostatic effect, and the same occurs in 1. In several cases, ΔE(p) is much larger than the expected 60 mV value, characterizing a quasi-reversible (i.e., relatively slow) redox process. It is suggested that this slower electron transfer be attributed to conformational rearrangement of the ferrocenyl groups toward the transoïd position in the course of electron transfer. Thus both the thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of the electrostatic factor (isolated from the electronic factor), including the frustration effect, are characterized. The distinction between the electronic communication and through-space electrostatic effect was made possible in all of these complexes in which the absence of wave splitting using a strongly ion-pairing electrolyte shows the absence of significant electronic communication, and was confirmed by the new frustration phenomenon.

Organometallic electrochemistry based on electrolytes containing weakly-coordinating fluoroarylborate anions

Electrochemistry is a powerful tool for the study of oxidative electron-transfer reactions (anodic processes). Since the 1960s, the electrolytes of choice for nonaqueous electrochemistry were relatively small (heptaatomic or smaller) inorganic anions, such as perchlorate, tetrafluoroborate, or hexafluorophosphate. Owing to the similar size-to-charge ratios of these "traditional" anions, structural alterations of the electrolyte anion are not particularly valuable in effecting changes in the corresponding redox reactions. Systematic variations of supporting electrolytes were largely restricted to cathodic processes, in which interactions of anions produced in the reactions are altered by changes in electrolyte cations. A typical ladder involves going from a weakly ion-pairing tetraalkylammonium cation, [N(C(n)H(2n+1))(4)](+), with n > or = 4, to more strongly ion-pairing counterparts with n < 4, and culminating in very strongly ion-pairing alkali metal ions. A new generation of supporting electrolyte salts that incorporate a weakly coordinating anion (WCA) expands anodic applications by providing a dramatically different medium in which to generate positively charged electrolysis products. A chain of electrolyte anions is now available for the control of anodic reactions, beginning with weakly ion-pairing WCAs, progressing through the traditional anions, and culminating in halide ions. Although the electrochemical properties of a number of different WCAs have been reported, the most systematic work involves fluoro- or trifluoromethyl-substituted tetraphenylborate anions (fluoroarylborate anions). In this Account, we focus on tetrakis(perfluorophenyl)borate, [B(C(6)F(5))(4)](-), which has a significantly more positive anodic window than tetrakis[(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)]borate, [BArF(24)](-), making it suitable in a larger range of anodic oxidations. These WCAs also have a characteristic of specific importance to organometallic redox processes. Many electron-deficient organometallic compounds are subject to nucleophilic attack by the traditional family of electrolyte anions. With a view to testing the scope of the much less nucleophililic WCAs in providing a benign electrolyte anion for the generation of organometallic cation radicals, we carried out a series of studies on transition metal sandwich and half-sandwich compounds. The model compounds were chosen both for their fundamental importance and because their radical cations had been neither isolated nor spectrally characterized, despite many previous electrochemical investigations with traditional anions. The oxidation of prototypical organometallic compounds, such as the sandwich-structured ruthenocene and the piano-stool structured Cr(eta(6)-C(6)H(6))(CO)(3), Mn(eta(5)-C(5)H(5))(CO)(3), Re(eta(5)-C(5)H(5))(CO)(3), and Co(eta(5)-C(5)H(5))(CO)(2), gave the first definitive in situ characterization of their radical cations. In several cases, the kinetic stabilization of the anodic products allowed the identification of dimers or unique dimer radicals having weak metal-metal bonds and provided new preparative options for organometallic systems. In terms of thermodynamic effects, the lower ion-pairing abilities of WCAs and their good solubility in a broad range of solvents, including those of lower polarity, permitted a systematic study that yielded an integrated model of how to use solvent-electrolyte combinations to manipulate the E(1/2) differences of compounds undergoing multiple electron-transfer reactions. Although the efficacy of WCA-based electrolytes in organometallic anodic chemistry is now established, WCAs might further expand applications of organic redox chemistry. Other WCAs, including those derived from carboranes and fluorinated alkoxyaluminates, merit additional studies.