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Scholz C, Quednow BB, Herdener M, Kraemer T, Baumgartner MR. Cocaine Hydroxy Metabolites in Hair: Indicators for Cocaine Use Versus External Contamination☆. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 43:543-552. [PMID: 30927360 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkz022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Given that external contamination must be considered in hair analysis, there is still a demand for reliable tools to differentiate between incorporation of drugs into the hair as a result of drug consumption and of the hair shaft by external contamination. With the aim of establishing alternative discrimination parameters, some of the hydroxy metabolites of cocaine i.e., para- and meta-hydroxycocaine and para- and meta-hydroxybenzoylecgonine were measured together with cocaine, benzoylecgonine, cocaethylene, and norcocaine in five seized street cocaine samples and in hair samples from different cohorts: cohort 1 (in vivo external contamination study, n = 28), cohort 2 (individuals with self-reported cocaine use, n = 92), and cohort 3 (individuals with suspected cocaine use or contamination, n = 198). Statistical evaluation of the data of cohort 1 and 2 using ROC curves yielded metabolic ratios indicating cocaine use. Based on these results, a decision workflow was established for the discrimination between cocaine use and external contamination. The power of this approach was finally statistically validated across the different cohorts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clementine Scholz
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Boris B Quednow
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marcus Herdener
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus R Baumgartner
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Verma A, Bennett J, Örme AM, Polycarpou E, Rooney B. Cocaine addicted to cytoskeletal change and a fibrosis high. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2019; 76:177-185. [PMID: 30623590 DOI: 10.1002/cm.21510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine is one of the most widely abused illicit drugs due to its euphoric and addictive properties. Cocaine-mediated cognitive impairments are the result of dynamic cytoskeletal rearrangements involved in mediating structural and behavioural plasticity. Cytoskeletal changes initiated following cocaine abuse are regulated by the Rho family of GTPases with significant downstream activity in key actin binding proteins. Moreover, signalling via the endoplasmic reticulum chaperone protein, sigma-1 receptor has highlighted the possibility of cocaine regulated pathology in other organ systems. However, the question of whether upstream stimulation of such a high affinity binding receptor is directly involved in cocaine-mediated cytoskeletal changes at present remains unknown. In this review, we describe the functional role of key cytoskeletal regulators in response to cocaine-induced signalling cues. In addition, we ascertain the extent of whether global cytoskeletal modulators involved in cocaine-induced neurological stimulation can be used as a platform for future studies into elucidating its fibrotic potential within the hepatic microenvironment. A focus on aspects still poorly understood relating to the nonneuronal pathological impact of cocaine is discussed in the sphere of hepatic dysregulation. Lastly, we suggest that cocaine may mediate its pathological capacity via the sigma1 receptor in regulating hepatoxicity, hepatic stellate cells activity, cytoskeletal dynamics, and the transcriptional regulation of key hepato-fibrogenic modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avnish Verma
- Kingston University, Department of Applied and Human Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Jason Bennett
- Centre for Cell Signalling and Inflammation, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ayşe Merve Örme
- Kingston University, Department of Applied and Human Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Elena Polycarpou
- Kingston University, Department of Applied and Human Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Brian Rooney
- Kingston University, Department of Applied and Human Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Surrey, United Kingdom
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Roncancio D, Yu H, Xu X, Wu S, Liu R, Debord J, Lou X, Xiao Y. A label-free aptamer-fluorophore assembly for rapid and specific detection of cocaine in biofluids. Anal Chem 2014; 86:11100-6. [PMID: 25342426 DOI: 10.1021/ac503360n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
We report a rapid and specific aptamer-based method for one-step cocaine detection with minimal reagent requirements. The feasibility of aptamer-based detection has been demonstrated with sensors that operate via target-induced conformational change mechanisms, but these have generally exhibited limited target sensitivity. We have discovered that the cocaine-binding aptamer MNS-4.1 can also bind the fluorescent molecule 2-amino-5,6,7-trimethyl-1,8-naphthyridine (ATMND) and thereby quench its fluorescence. We subsequently introduced sequence changes into MNS-4.1 to engineer a new cocaine-binding aptamer (38-GC) that exhibits higher affinity to both ligands, with reduced background signal and increased signal gain. Using this aptamer, we have developed a new sensor platform that relies on the cocaine-mediated displacement of ATMND from 38-GC as a result of competitive binding. We demonstrate that our sensor can detect cocaine within seconds at concentrations as low as 200 nM, which is 50-fold lower than existing assays based on target-induced conformational change. More importantly, our assay achieves successful cocaine detection in body fluids, with a limit of detection of 10.4, 18.4, and 36 μM in undiluted saliva, urine, and serum samples, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Roncancio
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University , 11200 SW Eighth Street, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
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A novel nitro-substituted benzothiadiazole as fluorescent probe for tumor cells under hypoxic condition. Bioorg Med Chem 2013; 21:7735-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2013.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Schneider KJ, DeCaprio AP. Evaluation of in vitro metabolic systems for common drugs of abuse. 1. Cocaine. Xenobiotica 2013; 43:1043-1054. [PMID: 23675856 DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2013.795254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the efficacy of four common in vitro assay systems in producing metabolic profiles consistent with in vivo data for drugs of abuse. Cocaine (COC) was selected for this study because of its complex biotransformation pathways, diverse metabolic processes and because extensive Phase I and Phase II metabolomic examination of COC has not yet been reported by means of in vitro assay. COC metabolism was assessed with a series of common in vitro assay systems (human liver microsomes, cytosol and human liver S9 fraction and horseradish peroxidase) using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with multiple reaction monitoring. Qualitative and quantitative differences in analyte production were noted among the various active Phase I and Phase II metabolic systems. Assay incubation time was found to be a determining factor in metabolic profile, specifically with primary versus secondary metabolite formation. Regioselective arene hydroxylation of COC was conclusively documented in human hepatic metabolic models, while peroxidase-based assay systems displayed less selectivity in oxidative aryl biotransformation. Results demonstrate the applicability of in vitro systems in studying COC metabolite production and the impact of assay selection and variation in method parameters on metabolite profiles for this important drug of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J Schneider
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the International Forensic Research Institute, Florida International University , Miami, FL , USA
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Bystrowska B, Adamczyk P, Moniczewski A, Zaniewska M, Fuxe K, Filip M. LC/MS/MS evaluation of cocaine and its metabolites in different brain areas, peripheral organs and plasma in cocaine self-administering rats. Pharmacol Rep 2013; 64:1337-49. [PMID: 23406744 DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(12)70931-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2012] [Revised: 06/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We employed a cocaine intravenous self-administration model based on positive reinforcement of animals' instrumental reactions (i.e., lever pressing) rewarded by a dose of the drug. We also carried out simultaneous characterization of the pharmacokinetics of cocaine and its metabolites in rats during withdrawal; in this part of the experiments, we investigated the cocaine (2 mg/kg, iv)-induced changes in the distribution, rate constant, clearance and t₁/₂ of the parent drug and its metabolites in different structures of the brain and in peripheral tissues. METHODS By using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) we measured the levels of cocaine and its major metabolites. RESULTS Our results demonstrate differences in the levels of cocaine after cocaine self-administration in the rat, with the highest concentration seen in the striatum and the lowest in the cerebellum. Cocaine metabolites determined in the rat brain remained at very low levels (benzoylecgonine), irrespectively of the brain area, whereas the norcocaine concentration varied from 1.56 μg/g (the nucleus accumbens) to 2.73 μg/g (the striatum). CONCLUSION A tandem LC/MS/MS is a valid method for evaluation of brain and peripheral levels of cocaine and its metabolites. Our results demonstrate brain area-dependent differences in the levels of cocaine after its self-administration in the rat. There were also differences in pharmacokinetic parameters among the brain areas and peripheral tissues following a bolus iv injection of cocaine to rats withdrawn from cocaine; among brain structures the slowest metabolic rate was detected for the striatum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beata Bystrowska
- Department of Toxicology, Collegium Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688 Kraków, Poland.
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Abé C, Mon A, Durazzo TC, Pennington DL, Schmidt TP, Meyerhoff DJ. Polysubstance and alcohol dependence: unique abnormalities of magnetic resonance-derived brain metabolite levels. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 130:30-7. [PMID: 23122599 PMCID: PMC3624044 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2012] [Revised: 09/26/2012] [Accepted: 10/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although comorbid substance misuse is common in alcohol dependence, and polysubstance abusers (PSU) represent the largest group of individuals seeking treatment for drug abuse today, we know little about potential brain abnormalities in this population. Brain magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies of mono-substance use disorders (e.g., alcohol or cocaine) reveal abnormal levels of cortical metabolites (reflecting neuronal integrity, cell membrane turnover/synthesis, cellular bioenergetics, gliosis) and altered concentrations of glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). The concurrent misuse of several substances may have unique and different effects on brain biology and function compared to any mono-substance misuse. METHODS High field brain magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 4 T and neurocognitive testing were performed at one month of abstinence in 40 alcohol dependent individuals (ALC), 28 alcohol dependent PSU and 16 drug-free controls. Absolute metabolite concentrations were calculated in anterior cingulate (ACC), parieto-occipital (POC) and dorso-lateral prefrontal cortices (DLPFC). RESULTS Compared to ALC, PSU demonstrated significant metabolic abnormalities in the DLPFC and strong trends to lower GABA in the ACC. Metabolite levels in ALC and light drinking controls were statistically equivalent. Within PSU, lower DLPFC GABA levels are related to greater cocaine consumption. Several cortical metabolite concentrations were associated with cognitive performance. CONCLUSIONS While metabolite concentrations in ALC at one month of abstinence were largely normal, PSU showed persistent and functionally significant metabolic abnormalities, primarily in the DLPFC. Our results point to specific metabolic deficits as biomarkers in polysubstance misuse and as targets for pharmacological and behavioral PSU-specific treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Abé
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco and Center for Imaging of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Veterans Administration Medical Center San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
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Yao D, Shi X, Wang L, Gosnell BA, Chen C. Characterization of differential cocaine metabolism in mouse and rat through metabolomics-guided metabolite profiling. Drug Metab Dispos 2013; 41:79-88. [PMID: 23034697 PMCID: PMC3533428 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.112.048678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rodent animal models have been widely used for studying neurologic and toxicological events associated with cocaine abuse. It is known that the mouse is more susceptible to cocaine-induced hepatotoxicity (CIH) than the rat. However, the causes behind this species-dependent sensitivity to cocaine have not been elucidated. In this study, cocaine metabolism in the mouse and rat was characterized through LC-MS-based metabolomic analysis of urine samples and were further compared through calculating the relative abundance of individual cocaine metabolites. The results showed that the levels of benzoylecgonine, a major cocaine metabolite from ester hydrolysis, were comparable in the urine from the mice and rats treated with the same dose of cocaine. However, the levels of the cocaine metabolites from oxidative metabolism, such as N-hydroxybenzoylnorecgonine and hydroxybenzoylecgonine, differed dramatically between the two species, indicating species-dependent cocaine metabolism. Subsequent structural analysis through accurate mass analysis and LC-MS/MS fragmentation revealed that N-oxidation reactions, including N-demethylation and N-hydroxylation, are preferred metabolic routes in the mouse, while extensive aryl hydroxylation reactions occur in the rat. Through stable isotope tracing and in vitro enzyme reactions, a mouse-specific α-glucoside of N-hydroxybenzoylnorecgonine and a group of aryl hydroxy glucuronides high in the rat were identified and structurally elucidated. The differences in the in vivo oxidative metabolism of cocaine between the two rodent species were confirmed by the in vitro microsomal incubations. Chemical inhibition of P450 enzymes further revealed that different P450-mediated oxidative reactions in the ecgonine and benzoic acid moieties of cocaine contribute to the species-dependent biotransformation of cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Yao
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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Design of a bioreductively-activated fluorescent pH probe for tumor hypoxia imaging. Bioorg Med Chem 2009; 17:6952-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2009.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2009] [Revised: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 08/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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A mechanism for the inhibition of neural progenitor cell proliferation by cocaine. PLoS Med 2008; 5:e117. [PMID: 18593214 PMCID: PMC2504032 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2007] [Accepted: 04/16/2008] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prenatal exposure of the developing brain to cocaine causes morphological and behavioral abnormalities. Recent studies indicate that cocaine-induced proliferation inhibition and/or apoptosis in neural progenitor cells may play a pivotal role in causing these abnormalities. To understand the molecular mechanism through which cocaine inhibits cell proliferation in neural progenitors, we sought to identify the molecules that are responsible for mediating the effect of cocaine on cell cycle regulation. METHODS AND FINDINGS Microarray analysis followed by quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR was used to screen cocaine-responsive and cell cycle-related genes in a neural progenitor cell line where cocaine exposure caused a robust anti-proliferative effect by interfering with the G1-to-S transition. Cyclin A2, among genes related to the G1-to-S cell cycle transition, was most strongly down-regulated by cocaine. Down-regulation of cyclin A was also found in cocaine-treated human primary neural and A2B5+ progenitor cells, as well as in rat fetal brains exposed to cocaine in utero. Reversing cyclin A down-regulation by gene transfer counteracted the proliferation inhibition caused by cocaine. Further, we found that cocaine-induced accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which involves N-oxidation of cocaine via cytochrome P450, promotes cyclin A down-regulation by causing an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response, as indicated by increased phosphorylation of eIF2alpha and expression of ATF4. In the developing rat brain, the P450 inhibitor cimetidine counteracted cocaine-induced inhibition of neural progenitor cell proliferation as well as down-regulation of cyclin A. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that down-regulation of cyclin A underlies cocaine-induced proliferation inhibition in neural progenitors. The down-regulation of cyclin A is initiated by N-oxidative metabolism of cocaine and consequent ER stress. Inhibition of cocaine N-oxidative metabolism by P450 inhibitors may provide a preventive strategy for counteracting the adverse effects of cocaine on fetal brain development.
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Danger Y, Devys A, Gadjou C, Galons H, Blanchard D, Folléa G. Development of Monoclonal Antibodies Directed Against Cocaine and Cocaethylene: Potential New Tools for Immunotherapy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 23:212-8. [PMID: 15319068 DOI: 10.1089/1536859041651286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine abuse is a major health problem, with the number of overdose-related incidents on a constant increase. Monoclonal antibodies against cocaine and its major toxic metabolite cocaethylene, have been developed for immunotherapeutical neutralization in vivo. A series of monoclonal antibodies with high affinity for cocaethylene and cocaine were obtained. Clones DASm244-4D8A4A4 (4D8) and DASm244-5B3C3C6 (5B3) were selected and fully characterized. The antibodies secreted exhibited 1.40 x 10(8) and 3.69 x 10(7) M(-1) affinity constants for [3H]-cocaine and cocaethylene, respectively. In addition to cocaine, they bound to cocaethylene and did not recognize non-toxic cocaine metabolites. They did not bind to blood cells, indicating that they may be potential tools for cocaine neutralization in vivo in cases of overdose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannic Danger
- Etablissement Français du Sang, Laboratoire de Biotechnologie, Nantes, France
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Toennes SW, Fandiño AS, Hesse FJ, Kauert GF. Artifact production in the assay of anhydroecgonine methyl ester in serum using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2003; 792:345-51. [PMID: 12860042 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-0232(03)00324-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The detection of the pyrolysis product anhydroecgonine methyl ester (AEME, methylecgonidine) after cocaine smoking using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry is hampered by the artifactual production of AEME. The amount of AEME increases with the amount of cocaine used producing false positive values in authentic samples. A method for the correction of quantitative values was established using calibration of pyrolysis and estimation of the artifactual AEME. Authentic AEME in serum was differentiated from the artifact above 3.5 microg/l, 99% prediction limits of the quantitation were +/-3.1 microg/l. In 16 serum samples and five postmortem blood samples, cocaine and AEME were detected, but after application of the correction method only ten were truly positive for AEME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan W Toennes
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Center of Legal Medicine, University of Frankfurt, Kennedyallee 104, D-60596 Frankfurt/Main, Germany.
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