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Simon Á, Tozar T, Smarandache A, Boni M, Stoicu A, Dowson A, van Loon JJWA, Pascu ML. Stability Studies of UV Laser Irradiated Promethazine and Thioridazine after Exposure to Hypergravity Conditions. Molecules 2022; 27:1728. [PMID: 35268828 PMCID: PMC8911845 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27051728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals carried into space are subjected to different gravitational conditions. Hypergravity is encountered in the first stage, during spacecraft launching. The stability of medicines represents a critical element of space missions, especially long-duration ones. Therefore, stability studies should be envisaged before the implementation of drugs for future deep space travel, where the available pharmaceuticals would be limited and restocking from Earth would be impossible. Multipurpose drugs should be proposed for this reason, such as phenothiazine derivatives that can be transformed by optical methods into antimicrobial agents. Within this preliminary study, promethazine and thioridazine aqueous solutions were exposed to UV laser radiation that modified their structures and generated a mixture of photoproducts efficient against particular bacteria. Subsequently, they were subjected to 20 g in the European Space Agency's Large Diameter Centrifuge. The aim was to evaluate the impact of hypergravity on the physico-chemical and spectral properties of unirradiated and laser-irradiated medicine solutions through pH assay, UV-Vis/FTIR absorption spectroscopy, and thin-layer chromatography. The results revealed no substantial alterations in centrifuged samples when compared to uncentrifuged ones. Due to their stability after high-g episodes, laser-exposed phenothiazines could be considered for future space missions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ágota Simon
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics (INFLPR), Laser Department, Atomiștilor 409, 077125 Măgurele, Ilfov, Romania; (T.T.); (A.S.); (M.B.); (A.S.)
- Faculty of Physics, University of Bucharest, Atomiștilor 405, 077125 Măgurele, Ilfov, Romania
| | - Tatiana Tozar
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics (INFLPR), Laser Department, Atomiștilor 409, 077125 Măgurele, Ilfov, Romania; (T.T.); (A.S.); (M.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Adriana Smarandache
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics (INFLPR), Laser Department, Atomiștilor 409, 077125 Măgurele, Ilfov, Romania; (T.T.); (A.S.); (M.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Mihai Boni
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics (INFLPR), Laser Department, Atomiștilor 409, 077125 Măgurele, Ilfov, Romania; (T.T.); (A.S.); (M.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Alexandru Stoicu
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics (INFLPR), Laser Department, Atomiștilor 409, 077125 Măgurele, Ilfov, Romania; (T.T.); (A.S.); (M.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Alan Dowson
- European Space Agency (ESA), European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), TEC-MMG, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands; (A.D.); (J.J.W.A.v.L.)
| | - Jack J. W. A. van Loon
- European Space Agency (ESA), European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), TEC-MMG, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands; (A.D.); (J.J.W.A.v.L.)
- Dutch Experiment Support Center (DESC), Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery/Oral Pathology, Amsterdam Bone Center (ABC), Amsterdam UMC Location VU University Medical Center (VUmc) & Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA), Gustav Mahlerlaan 3004, 1081 LA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mihail Lucian Pascu
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics (INFLPR), Laser Department, Atomiștilor 409, 077125 Măgurele, Ilfov, Romania; (T.T.); (A.S.); (M.B.); (A.S.)
- Faculty of Physics, University of Bucharest, Atomiștilor 405, 077125 Măgurele, Ilfov, Romania
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Tozar T, Boni M, Andrei IR, Pascu ML, Staicu A. High performance thin layer chromatography-densitometry method based on picosecond laser-induced fluorescence for the analysis of thioridazine and its photoproducts. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1655:462488. [PMID: 34474191 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A densitometry method based on steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence assessments for thioridazine and its photoproducts applied on HPTLC plates has been developed. The excitation source was a picosecond diode laser emitting at 375 nm. This method was used for the analysis of the photoproducts resulted from thioridazine irradiation with 266 nm nanosecond-pulsed laser. The validation of the developed method was performed for thioridazine in terms of linearity, precision, limits of detection and quantification. Furthermore, analysis of the photoproducts of irradiated thioridazine was performed by steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence. The fluorescence spectra and fluorescence lifetime of each photoproduct were obtained and the horizontal chromatograms of fluorescence maxima were generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Tozar
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma, and Radiation Physics, Lasers Department, 409 Atomistilor, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania
| | - Mihai Boni
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma, and Radiation Physics, Lasers Department, 409 Atomistilor, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania
| | - Ionut R Andrei
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma, and Radiation Physics, Lasers Department, 409 Atomistilor, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania
| | - Mihail L Pascu
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma, and Radiation Physics, Lasers Department, 409 Atomistilor, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania
| | - Angela Staicu
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma, and Radiation Physics, Lasers Department, 409 Atomistilor, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania.
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Khadem Sadigh M, Zakerhamidi M, Shamkhali A. Contribution of environment polarity effects on the nonlinear hyperpolarizability and linear optical characteristics of some phenothiazines. J Mol Liq 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2021.116328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Kowalska J, Rok J, Rzepka Z, Wrześniok D. Drug-Induced Photosensitivity-From Light and Chemistry to Biological Reactions and Clinical Symptoms. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:723. [PMID: 34451820 PMCID: PMC8401619 DOI: 10.3390/ph14080723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Photosensitivity is one of the most common cutaneous adverse drug reactions. There are two types of drug-induced photosensitivity: photoallergy and phototoxicity. Currently, the number of photosensitization cases is constantly increasing due to excessive exposure to sunlight, the aesthetic value of a tan, and the increasing number of photosensitizing substances in food, dietary supplements, and pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. The risk of photosensitivity reactions relates to several hundred externally and systemically administered drugs, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular, psychotropic, antimicrobial, antihyperlipidemic, and antineoplastic drugs. Photosensitivity reactions often lead to hospitalization, additional treatment, medical management, decrease in patient's comfort, and the limitations of drug usage. Mechanisms of drug-induced photosensitivity are complex and are observed at a cellular, molecular, and biochemical level. Photoexcitation and photoconversion of drugs trigger multidirectional biological reactions, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and changes in melanin synthesis. These effects contribute to the appearance of the following symptoms: erythema, swelling, blisters, exudation, peeling, burning, itching, and hyperpigmentation of the skin. This article reviews in detail the chemical and biological basis of drug-induced photosensitivity. The following factors are considered: the chemical properties, the influence of individual ranges of sunlight, the presence of melanin biopolymers, and the defense mechanisms of particular types of tested cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Dorota Wrześniok
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Jagiellońska 4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland; (J.K.); (J.R.); (Z.R.)
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Soria ALG, Ramirez FR, Pliego AB, Guadarrama HRD, Farrera GPM, Angel GY, Chagoyán JCV, Gomaa RMM, Tenorio-Borroto E. Evaluating Hemolytic and Photo Hemolytic Potential of Organophosphorus by In Vitro Method as an Alternative Tool Using Human Erythrocytes. Curr Top Med Chem 2021; 20:738-745. [PMID: 32101124 DOI: 10.2174/1568026620666200226104029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The present study aims to determine the phototoxic and haemolytic activity of organophosphorus. The use of alternative in vitro assays with human erythrocytes is suggested to predict the polluting effect of these products on health. METHODOLOGY Human erythrocytes from Toluca Blood Bank were used. Sodium dodecyl sulfate was employed as a positive control. Additionally, the haemolysis percentage of three organophosphate (Acetate, Chlorpyrifos, Malathion, Methamidophos, Methyl Parathion) induced photo haemolysis formulated with surfactants on a concentration of 2 x 109 erythrocytes were evaluated. Finally, the products were classified as irritant or phototoxic. RESULTS Results showed that the HC50 red blood cells were similar for each organophosphate (Malathion and Methamidophos) indicating very irritant action with ratio classification (L/D) of 0.041 and 0.053, respectively. On the other hand, Chlorpyrifos was classified as an irritant with L/D= 0.14. On the other hand, the HC50 obtained photo hemolysis assays irradiated red blood cells was similar for each organophosphate (Acetate, Chlorpyrifos, Malathion, Methamidophos, Methyl Parathion) indicating no phototoxic action. CONCLUSION As a conclusion, it can be said that the parameters of haemolysis and denaturation of proteins are good indicators to classify organophosphorus formulated with surfactants as irritating or phototoxic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana L G Soria
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico, Toluca, Mexico
| | - Fabiola R Ramirez
- Technological University of the Valley of Toluca, Carretera del Distrito Federal Km 7.5 Santa María Atarrasquillo, Lerma, State of Mexico, 52044, Mexico
| | - Alberto B Pliego
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico, Toluca, Mexico
| | - Héctor R D Guadarrama
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico, Toluca, Mexico
| | - Guadalupe P M Farrera
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Autonomous University of Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico
| | - Gilberto Y Angel
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Autonomous University of Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico
| | - Juan C V Chagoyán
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico, Toluca, Mexico
| | - Raafat M M Gomaa
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Esvieta Tenorio-Borroto
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico, Toluca, Mexico
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B. Rodrigues AC, Pina J, Seixas de Melo JS. Structure-relation properties of N-substituted phenothiazines in solution and solid state: Photophysical, photostability and aggregation-induced emission studies. J Mol Liq 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2020.113966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Johnson BM, Shu YZ, Zhuo X, Meanwell NA. Metabolic and Pharmaceutical Aspects of Fluorinated Compounds. J Med Chem 2020; 63:6315-6386. [PMID: 32182061 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b01877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 323] [Impact Index Per Article: 80.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The applications of fluorine in drug design continue to expand, facilitated by an improved understanding of its effects on physicochemical properties and the development of synthetic methodologies that are providing access to new fluorinated motifs. In turn, studies of fluorinated molecules are providing deeper insights into the effects of fluorine on metabolic pathways, distribution, and disposition. Despite the high strength of the C-F bond, the departure of fluoride from metabolic intermediates can be facile. This reactivity has been leveraged in the design of mechanism-based enzyme inhibitors and has influenced the metabolic fate of fluorinated compounds. In this Perspective, we summarize the literature associated with the metabolism of fluorinated molecules, focusing on examples where the presence of fluorine influences the metabolic profile. These studies have revealed potentially problematic outcomes with some fluorinated motifs and are enhancing our understanding of how fluorine should be deployed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M Johnson
- Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization, Bristol Myers Squibb Company, 100 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Yue-Zhong Shu
- Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization, Bristol Myers Squibb Company, Route 206 and Province Line Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Xiaoliang Zhuo
- Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization, Bristol Myers Squibb Company, 100 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Nicholas A Meanwell
- Discovery Chemistry Platforms, Small Molecule Drug Discovery, Bristol Myers Squibb Company, Route 206 and Province Line Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
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Schmidt F, Wenzel J, Halland N, Güssregen S, Delafoy L, Czich A. Computational Investigation of Drug Phototoxicity: Photosafety Assessment, Photo-Toxophore Identification, and Machine Learning. Chem Res Toxicol 2019; 32:2338-2352. [PMID: 31625387 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.9b00338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
One of the most appreciated capabilities of computational toxicology is to support the design of pharmaceuticals with reduced toxicological hazard. To this end, we have strengthened our drug photosafety assessments by applying novel computer models for the anticipation of in vitro phototoxicity and human photosensitization. These models are typically used in pharmaceutical discovery projects as part of the compound toxicity assessments and compound optimization methods. To ensure good data quality and aiming at models with global applicability we separately compiled and curated highly chemically diverse data sets from 3T3 NRU phototoxicity reports (450 compounds) and clinical photosensitization alerts (1419 compounds) which are provided as supplements. The latter data gives rise to a comprehensive list of explanatory fragments for visual guidance, termed phototoxophores, by application of a Bayesian statistics approach. To extend beyond the domain of well sampled fragments we applied machine learning techniques based on explanatory descriptors such as pharmacophoric fingerprints or, more important, accurate electronic energy descriptors. Electronic descriptors were extracted from quantum chemical computations at the density functional theory (DFT) level. Accurate UV/vis spectral absorption descriptors and pharmacophoric fingerprints turned out to be necessary for predictive computer models, which were both derived from Deep Neural Networks but also the simpler Random Decision Forests approach. Model accuracies of 83-85% could typically be reached for diverse test data sets and other company in-house data, while model sensitivity (the capability of correctly detecting toxicants) was even better, reaching 86%-90%. Importantly, a computer model-triggered response-map allowed for graphical/chemical interpretability also in the case of previously unknown phototoxophores. The photosafety models described here are currently applied in a prospective manner for the hazard identification, prioritization, and optimization of newly designed molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jan Wenzel
- Sanofi R&D , Industriepark Hoechst , 65926 Frankfurt , Germany
| | - Nis Halland
- Sanofi R&D , Industriepark Hoechst , 65926 Frankfurt , Germany
| | | | | | - Andreas Czich
- Sanofi R&D , Industriepark Hoechst , 65926 Frankfurt , Germany
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9
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Menilli L, García-Argáez AN, Dalla Via L, Miolo G. The neuroleptic drug fluphenazine induces a significant UVA-mediated cytotoxic effect on three human cancer cell lines through apoptosis. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2019; 18:2232-2239. [PMID: 30860541 DOI: 10.1039/c9pp00023b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The cytotoxic activity of fluphenazine (FPZ) in combination with UVA light was evaluated on three human tumor cell lines, HeLa, MSTO-211H and A431. The photobiological effect was determined following irradiation treatment in the presence of/or after the removal of incubated FPZ. Under both conditions, FPZ proved to be very effective in killing tumor cells, with GI50 values in the micromolar range. However, when FPZ was present during irradiation, the photocytotoxicity was at least two times higher than that after its removal suggesting the contribution of the drug both outside and inside the cells. The uptake of FPZ was very fast and, after only 15 minutes of incubation, the compound was accumulated inside lysosomes, as evidenced through fluorescence microscopy. FPZ distribution covered also the nucleus and the cytoplasm without significant plasma membrane association. After irradiation, the membrane of lysosomes in which FPZ was accumulated lost its integrity suggesting that the released lysosomal enzymes played an important role in cell death, and mitochondria were damaged as well, following apoptosis. Indeed, cytofluorimetric studies demonstrated that apoptosis was the main mechanism of cell death. Finally, an extremely high production of ROS was found, indicating a significant photodynamic mechanism involved in the photocytotoxic effect of FPZ. Taken together, our data show that FPZ following UVA irradiation behaves as an effective photoantiproliferative compound inducing apoptosis on various human tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Menilli
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo, 5, 35131 Padova, Italy.
| | - Aída Nelly García-Argáez
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo, 5, 35131 Padova, Italy.
| | - Lisa Dalla Via
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo, 5, 35131 Padova, Italy.
| | - Giorgia Miolo
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo, 5, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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Wilde ML, Schneider M, Kümmerer K. Fenton process on single and mixture components of phenothiazine pharmaceuticals: Assessment of intermediaries, fate, and preliminary ecotoxicity. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 583:36-52. [PMID: 28126283 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals do not occur isolated in the environment but in multi-component mixtures and may exhibit antagonist, synergistic or additive behavior. Knowledge on this is still scarce. The situation is even more complicated if effluents or potable water is treated by oxidative processes or such transformations occur in the environment. Thus, determining the fate and effects of parent compounds, metabolites and transformation products (TPs) formed by transformation and degradation processes in the environment is needed. This study investigated the fate and preliminary ecotoxicity of the phenothiazine pharmaceuticals, Promazine (PRO), Promethazine (PRM), Chlorpromazine (CPR), and Thioridazine (THI) as single and as components of the resulting mixtures obtained from their treatment by Fenton process. The Fenton process was carried out at pH7 and by using 0.5-2mgL-1 of [Fe2+]0 and 1-12.5mgL-1 of [H2O2]0 at the fixed ratio [Fe2+]0:[H2O2]0 of 1:10 (w:w). No complete mineralization was achieved. Constitutional isomers and some metabolite-like TPs formed were suggested based on their UHPLC-HRMSn data. A degradation pathway was proposed considering interconnected mechanisms such as sulfoxidation, hydroxylation, N-dealkylation, and dechlorination steps. Aerobic biodegradation tests (OECD 301 D and OECD 301 F) were applied to the parent compounds separately, to the mixture of parent compounds, and for the cocktail of TPs present after the treatment by Fenton process. The samples were not readily biodegradable. However, LC-MS analysis revealed that abiotic transformations, such hydrolysis, and autocatalytic transformations occurred. The initial ecotoxicity tested towards Vibrio fischeri as individual compounds featured a reduction in toxicity of PRM and CPR by the treatment process, whereas PRO showed an increase in acute luminescence inhibition and THI a stable luminescence inhibition. Concerning effects of the mixture components, reduction in toxicity by the Fenton process was predicted by concentration addition and independent action models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo L Wilde
- Formerly: Sustainable Chemistry and Material Resources, Institute of Sustainable Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana University Lüneburg, C13, DE-21335 Lüneburg, Germany.
| | - Mandy Schneider
- Sustainable Chemistry and Material Resources, Institute of Sustainable Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana University Lüneburg, C13, DE-21335 Lüneburg, Germany.
| | - Klaus Kümmerer
- Sustainable Chemistry and Material Resources, Institute of Sustainable Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana University Lüneburg, C13, DE-21335 Lüneburg, Germany.
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Trawiński J, Skibiński R. Studies on photodegradation process of psychotropic drugs: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:1152-1199. [PMID: 27696160 PMCID: PMC5306312 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7727-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of psychotropic drugs is still increasing, especially in high-income countries. One of the most crucial consequences of this fact is significant release of them to the environment. Considerable amounts of atypical antipsychotics, benzodiazepines, antidepressants, and their metabolites were detected in river, lake, and sea water, as well as in tissues of aquatic organisms. Their ecotoxicity was proved by numerous studies. It should be noticed that interaction between psychotropic pharmaceuticals and radiation may lead to formation of potentially more toxic intermediates. On the other hand, photo-assisted wastewater treatment methods can be used as an efficient way to eliminate them from the environment. Many methods based on photolysis and photocatalysis were proposed and developed recently; nevertheless, the problem is still unsolved. However, according to recent studies, photocatalysis could be considered as the most promising and far more effective than regular photolysis. An overview on photolytic as well as homogenous and heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation methods with the use of various catalysts is presented. The photostability and phototoxicity of pharmaceuticals were also discussed. Various analytical methods were used for the photodegradation research, and this issue was also compared and summarized. Use of high-resolution multistage mass spectrometry (Q-TOF, ion trap, Orbitrap) was suggested. The combined techniques such as LC-MS, GC-MS, and LC-NMR, which enable qualitative and quantitative analyses in one run, proved to be the most valuable in this case. Assembling of MS/MS spectra libraries of drug molecules and their phototransformation products was identified as the future challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Trawiński
- Department of Medicinal, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Robert Skibiński
- Department of Medicinal, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090, Lublin, Poland
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Ahmad W, Rehan Zaheer M, Gupta A, Iqbal J. Photodegradation of trimeprazine triggered by self-photogenerated singlet molecular oxygen. JOURNAL OF SAUDI CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jscs.2012.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Development of fluorometric reactive oxygen species assay for photosafety evaluation. Toxicol In Vitro 2016; 34:113-119. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2016.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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14
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Miolo G, Tucci M, Mazzoli A, Ferrara SD, Favretto D. Photostability of 6-MAM and morphine exposed to controlled UV irradiation in water and methanol solution: HRMS for the characterization of transformation products and comparison with the dry state. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 126:48-59. [PMID: 27153474 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2015] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The UVA and UVB light-induced behaviour of 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) and morphine, the main metabolites of heroin, was studied in methanol, aqueous solution and in the dry state. UVA and UVB irradiations were performed for different times (radiant energies of 20-300J/cm(2)). UV spectra of irradiated samples were compared with samples kept in the dark. To estimate the extent of photolysis, positive ion electrospray ionization experiments were performed on the irradiated samples by LC-HRMS. Tentative identification of photoproducts was performed on the basis of their elemental formula as calculated by HRMS results. Morphine and 6-MAM demonstrated to be quite stable under UVA light but very sensitive to UVB irradiation. In methanol solutions they undergo a similar pattern, both reaching 90% photodegradation after 100J/cm(2) of UVB, with a slightly faster kinetic for morphine at lower doses. In water, the yields of photodegradation are nearly one third lower than in methanol. In the solid state, the yield of photodegradation is lower than in solution. The structures of some UVB-induced degradation products are proposed. Photoaddition of the solvent and photooxidation seem the main pathways of phototransformation of these molecules. Moreover, both compounds revealed to generate singlet oxygen under UVB exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Miolo
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 5, I-35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Marianna Tucci
- Department of Cardiological, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, Legal Medicine and Toxicology, University Hospital of Padova, Via Falloppio 50, I-35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Alessandra Mazzoli
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology and Centro di Eccellenza sui Materiali Innovativi Nanostrutturati (CEMIN), University of Perugia, 06100 Perugia, Italy
| | - Santo Davide Ferrara
- Department of Cardiological, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, Legal Medicine and Toxicology, University Hospital of Padova, Via Falloppio 50, I-35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Donata Favretto
- Department of Cardiological, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, Legal Medicine and Toxicology, University Hospital of Padova, Via Falloppio 50, I-35121 Padova, Italy.
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Wilde ML, Menz J, Trautwein C, Leder C, Kümmerer K. Environmental fate and effect assessment of thioridazine and its transformation products formed by photodegradation. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2016; 213:658-670. [PMID: 27020046 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Revised: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
An experimental and in silico quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) approach was applied to assess the environmental fate and effects of the antipsychotic drug Thioridazine (THI). The sunlight-driven attenuation of THI was simulated using a Xenon arc lamp. The photodegradation reached the complete primary elimination, whereas 97% of primary elimination and 11% of mineralization was achieved after 256 min of irradiation for the initial concentrations of 500 μg L(-1) and 50 mg L(-1), respectively. A non-target approach for the identification and monitoring of transformation products (TPs) was adopted. The structure of the TPs was further elucidated using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The proposed photodegradation pathway included sulfoxidation, hydroxylation, dehydroxylation, and S- and N-dealkylation, taking into account direct and indirect photolysis through a self-sensitizing process in the higher concentration studied. The biodegradability of THI and photolytic samples of THI was tested according to OECD 301D and 301F, showing that THI and the mixture of TPs were not readily biodegradable. Furthermore, THI was shown to be highly toxic to environmental bacteria using a modified luminescent bacteria test with Vibrio fischeri. This bacteriotoxic activity of THI was significantly reduced by phototransformation and individual concentration-response analysis confirmed a lowered bacterial toxicity for the sulfoxidation products Thioridazine-2-sulfoxide and Thioridazine-5-sulfoxide. Additionally, the applied QSAR models predicted statistical and rule-based positive alerts of mutagenic activities for carbazole derivative TPs (TP 355 and TP 339) formed through sulfoxide elimination, which would require further confirmatory in vitro validation tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo L Wilde
- Sustainable Chemistry and Material Resources, Institute of Sustainable Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana University Lüneburg, C13, DE-21335 Lüneburg, Germany.
| | - Jakob Menz
- Sustainable Chemistry and Material Resources, Institute of Sustainable Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana University Lüneburg, C13, DE-21335 Lüneburg, Germany.
| | - Christoph Trautwein
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Microstructure Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.
| | - Christoph Leder
- Sustainable Chemistry and Material Resources, Institute of Sustainable Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana University Lüneburg, C13, DE-21335 Lüneburg, Germany.
| | - Klaus Kümmerer
- Sustainable Chemistry and Material Resources, Institute of Sustainable Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana University Lüneburg, C13, DE-21335 Lüneburg, Germany.
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Monteiro AF, Rato M, Martins C. Drug-induced photosensitivity: Photoallergic and phototoxic reactions. Clin Dermatol 2016; 34:571-81. [PMID: 27638435 DOI: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2016.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Drug-induced photosensitivity refers to the development of cutaneous disease due to the interaction between a given chemical agent and sunlight. Photosensitivity reactions can be classified as phototoxic or photoallergic. Sometimes, there is an overlap between these two patterns, making their distinction particularly difficult for the clinician. We review the drugs that have been implicated as photosensitizers, the involved mechanism, and their clinical presentations. The main topical agents that cause contact photosensitivity are the nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, whereas the main systemic drugs inducing photosensitivity are antimicrobials, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents, and cardiovascular drugs. Drug-induced photosensitivity remains a common clinical problem and is often underdiagnosed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Filipe Monteiro
- Department of Dermatovenereology, Hospital Distrital de Santarém EPE, Santarém, Portugal.
| | - Margarida Rato
- Department of Dermatovenereology, Hospital Distrital de Santarém EPE, Santarém, Portugal
| | - César Martins
- Department of Dermatovenereology, Hospital Distrital de Santarém EPE, Santarém, Portugal
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Manju T, Manoj N, López Gejo J, Braun AM, Oliveros E. Micellar control of the photooxidation pathways of 10-methyl phenothiazine: electron versus energy transfer mechanisms. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2014; 13:281-92. [PMID: 24227162 DOI: 10.1039/c3pp50261a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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18
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Onoue S, Kato M, Inoue R, Seto Y, Yamada S. Photosafety Screening of Phenothiazine Derivatives With Combined Use of Photochemical and Cassette-Dosing Pharmacokinetic Data. Toxicol Sci 2013; 137:469-77. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kft260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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19
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Seto Y, Kato M, Yamada S, Onoue S. Development of micellar reactive oxygen species assay for photosafety evaluation of poorly water-soluble chemicals. Toxicol In Vitro 2013; 27:1838-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Revised: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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20
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Preus S, Jønck S, Pittelkow M, Dierckx A, Karpkird T, Albinsson B, Wilhelmsson LM. The photoinduced transformation of fluorescent DNA base analogue tC triggers DNA melting. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2013; 12:1416-22. [PMID: 23689311 DOI: 10.1039/c3pp50057h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
While fluorescent analogues of the canonical nucleobases have proven to be highly valuable in a large number of applications, up until today, fluorescent DNA base analogues remain virtually inapplicable for single-molecule fluorescence experiments which require extremely bright and photostable dyes. Insight into the photodegradation processes of these fluorophores is thus a key step in the continuous development towards dyes with improved performances. Here, we show that the commercially available fluorescent nucleobase analogue tC under intense long-term illumination and in the presence of O2 is degraded to form a single photoreaction product which we suggest to be the sulfoxide form of tC. The photoproduct is characterized by a blue-shifted absorption and a less intense fluorescence compared to that of tC. Interestingly, when tC is positioned inside double-stranded DNA this photodriven conversion of tC to its photoproduct greatly reduces the duplex stability of the overall double helix in which the probe is positioned. Since tC can be excited selectively at 400 nm, well outside the absorption band of the natural DNA bases, this observation points towards the application of tC as a general light-triggered switch of DNA duplex stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Søren Preus
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-2100, Denmark
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21
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Trautwein C, Kümmerer K. Ready biodegradability of trifluoromethylated phenothiazine drugs, structural elucidation of their aquatic transformation products, and identification of environmental risks studied by LC-MS( n ) and QSAR. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2012; 19:3162-3177. [PMID: 22678547 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-012-1002-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/21/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The environmental fate of transformation products from organic pollutants such as drugs has become a new research area of increasing interest over the last few years. Whereas in the past mainly parent compounds or their major human metabolites were studied, new questions have arisen what compounds could be formed during incomplete degradation in the aquatic environment and what effects the resulting transformation products might have on nature and mankind. Psychiatric drugs are among the most important prescription drugs worldwide, but so far only little data is provided upon their degradation behavior. This especially accounts for tricyclic antipsychotic drugs of the phenothiazine class. Therefore, the degradation of such drugs was investigated in this study. In this study the aerobic Closed Bottle test (The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 301D) was used to assess the ready biodegradability of three trifluoromethylated phenothiazine drugs: fluphenazine, triflupromazine, and trifluoperazine. As it is known from literature that phenothiazine drugs can easily form various photolytic transformation products under light exposure, photochemical transformation was also investigated. Since transformation products are usually not available commercially, the calculation of environmental parameters with the aid of quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) software was used for first evaluation of these compounds. According to the OECD test guideline, all trifluoromethylated phenothiazines had to be classified as not readily biodegradable. Chromatographic data revealed the formation of some transformation products. Comparing retention time and mass spectrometric data with the analytical results of the light exposure experiments, we found peaks with the same retention time and mass spectra. So these transformation products were not of bacterial, but photolytic, origin and are formed very quickly even under low light doses. A special chromatographic column and solvent gradient along with multiple stage mass spectrometric fragmentation experiments uncovered the presence of, in total, nine photolytic transformation products and allowed for their structural elucidation. Typical modifications of the molecules were sulfoxidation, exocyclic N-oxidation, and transformation of the trifluoromethyl to a carboxylic moiety. The obtained results of the QSAR calculations show that all transformation products are highly mobile in the aquatic environment and elimination through biotic or abiotic pathways cannot be expected. Transformation products of trifluoromethylated phenothiazine drugs have to be expected in the aquatic environment, yet nothing is known about their toxicological properties. Therefore, further risk assessment upon these drugs and their fate is strongly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Trautwein
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University Medical Centre Freiburg, Breisacher Str. 115B, 79106 Freiburg, Germany.
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Manju T, Manoj N, Braun AM, Oliveros E. Self sensitized photooxidation of N-methyl phenothiazine: acidity control of the competition between electron and energy transfer mechanisms. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2012; 11:1744-55. [DOI: 10.1039/c2pp25244a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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23
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Trakatelli M, Charalampidis S, Novakovic LB, Patsatsi A, Kalabalikis D, Sotiriadis D. Photodermatoses with onset in the elderly. Br J Dermatol 2010; 161 Suppl 3:69-77. [PMID: 19775360 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2009.09452.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Photodermatoses are a group of skin disorders induced by ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and, in some cases, visible light. To establish a diagnosis it is important to carefully take a history, physical examination and perform phototesting as well as other testing when appropriate (patch and photopatch tests, antinuclear antibodies, porphyrin profile). This article focuses on the photodermatoses that affect the elderly, which with the ageing of population, particularly in the industrialized societies, are becoming an increasingly important group for the healthcare systems. The most common photodermatoses with onset in the elderly are chronic actinic dermatitis and drug induced photosensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Trakatelli
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Papageorgiou Hospital, Aristotle University School of Medicine, Thessaloniki, Greece.
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Kyu-Won C, Chae-Young L, Yeong-Kyu L, Young-Hun K, Ki-Ho K. A Korean experience with chronic actinic dermatitis during an 18-year period: meteorological and photoimmunological aspects. PHOTODERMATOLOGY PHOTOIMMUNOLOGY & PHOTOMEDICINE 2009; 25:286-92. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0781.2009.00464.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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25
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Guevara EAC, de Lourdes Barriviera M, Hassón-Voloch A, Louro SRW. Chlorpromazine binding to Na+, K+-ATPase and photolabeling: involvement of the ouabain site monitored by fluorescence. Photochem Photobiol 2007; 83:914-9. [PMID: 17645663 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2007.00077.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This work reports the results of ultraviolet irradiation on the interaction of the phototoxic antipsychotic drug chlorpromazine (CPZ) with the sodium pump Na+, K+-ATPase. The study was performed by monitoring the fluorescence modifications of CPZ itself and of the specific probe anthroylouabain (AO). CPZ association with Na+, K+-ATPase was found to modify the kinetics of CPZ-photodegradation. It was demonstrated that UV irradiation produces a stable fluorescent photoproduct of CPZ covalently bound to Na+, K+-ATPase. The fluorescent probe AO, which specifically binds to the extracellular ouabain site of the pump, was used to localize the CPZ binding site. UV-irradiation of AO-labeled Na+, K+-ATPase treated with CPZ at concentration about 20 microM produced dose-dependent modifications of the AO fluorescence, e.g. increased quantum yield and blue shift. The results demonstrated that CPZ binds near the ouabain site. The photo-induced reaction of CPZ with AO-labeled Na+, K+-ATPase protected the ouabain site from the aqueous environment. It was also found that UV irradiation of CPZ-treated enzyme obstructs the binding of AO, which suggested occlusion of the ouabain site. This effect can be evaluated for a potential use of CPZ in photochemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elmer A C Guevara
- Department of Physics, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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26
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleksandr Loboda
- Dumansky Institute of Colloid Chemistry and Chemistry of Water, bulv. Vernadsky 42 Kyiv-142, Ukraine
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Caffieri S, Miolo G, Seraglia R, Dalzoppo D, Toma FM, van Henegouwen GMJB. Photoaddition of Fluphenazine to Nucleophiles in Peptides and Proteins. Possible Cause of Immune Side Effects. Chem Res Toxicol 2007; 20:1470-6. [PMID: 17883260 DOI: 10.1021/tx700123u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
By the action of UVA light, fluphenazine reacted with nucleophiles through a mechanism involving defluorination of its trifluoromethyl group, giving rise to carboxylic acid derivatives that were easily detected by electrospray mass spectrometry. This photoreaction took place with alcohols, sulphydryls, and amines. When irradiation of fluphenazine was carried out in the presence of an amino acid at pH 7.4, the alpha-amino group was covalently bound to the drug. With amino acids possessing a further nucleophilic residue on the side chain, such as lysine, tyrosine, and cysteine--but not serine--both groups reacted, resulting in a fluphenazine-amino acid-fluphenazine diadduct. The same occurred with the physiological peptide glutathione (gamma-glutamylcysteinylglycine). By means of MALDI mass spectrometry, it was shown that fluphenazine also covalently bound to peptides and proteins such as calmodulin. This binding may result in the formation of antibodies, ultimately leading to the destruction of the granulocytes and thus suggesting that photoactivation of this drug may play a role in its clinical side effects, such as agranulocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Caffieri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy.
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