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Zabala G, Kour A, Vodkin LO. Overexpression of an ethylene-forming ACC oxidase (ACO) gene precedes the Minute Hilum seed coat phenotype in Glycine max. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:716. [PMID: 33066734 PMCID: PMC7566151 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-07130-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To elucidate features of seed development, we investigated the transcriptome of a soybean isoline from the germplasm collection that contained an introgressed allele known as minute hilum (mi) which confers a smaller hilum region where the seed attaches to the pod and also results in seed coat cracking surrounding the hilum region. RESULTS RNAs were extracted from immature seed from an extended hilum region (i.e., the hilum and a small ring of tissue surrounding the hilum in which the cracks form) at three different developmental stages:10-25, 25-50 and 50-100 mg seed fresh weight in two independent replicates for each stage. The transcriptomes of these samples from both the Clark isoline containing the mi allele (PI 547628, UC413, ii R t mi G), and its recurrent Clark 63 parent isoline (PI 548532, UC7, ii R T Mi g), which was used for six generations of backcrossing, were compared for differential expression of 88,648 Glyma models of the soybean genome Wm82.a2. The RNA sequence data obtained from the 12 cDNA libraries were subjected to padj value < 0.05 and at least two-fold expression differences to select with confidence genes differentially expressed in the hilum-containing tissue of the seed coat between the two lines. Glyma.09G008400 annotated as encoding an ethylene forming enzyme, ACC oxidase (ACO), was found to be highly overexpressed in the mi hilum region at 165 RPKMs (reads per kilobase per million mapped reads) compared to the standard line at just 0.03 RPKMs. Evidence of changes in expression of genes downstream of the ethylene pathway included those involved in auxin and gibberellin hormone action and extensive differences in expression of cell wall protein genes. These changes are postulated to determine the restricted hilum size and cracking phenotypes. CONCLUSIONS We present transcriptome and phenotypic evidence that substantially higher expression of an ethylene-forming ACO gene likely shifts hormone balance and sets in motion downstream changes resulting in a smaller hilum phenotype and the cracks observed in the minute hilum (mi) isoline as compared to its recurrent parent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gracia Zabala
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 61981, USA
| | - Anupreet Kour
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 61981, USA
- Present address: Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, 22908, USA
| | - Lila O Vodkin
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 61981, USA.
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2
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Senda M, Kawasaki M, Hiraoka M, Yamashita K, Maeda H, Yamaguchi N. Occurrence and tolerance mechanisms of seed cracking under low temperatures in soybean (Glycine max). PLANTA 2018; 248:369-379. [PMID: 29737417 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-018-2912-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/29/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
MAIN CONCLUSION In soybean, occurrence of, or tolerance to, seed cracking under low temperatures may be related to the presence or absence, respectively, of proanthocyanidin accumulation in the seed coat dorsal region. Soybean seeds sometimes undergo cracking during low temperatures in summer. In this study, we focused on the occurrence and tolerance mechanisms of low-temperature-induced seed cracking in the sensitive yellow soybean cultivar Yukihomare and the tolerant yellow soybean breeding line Toiku 248. Yukihomare exhibited seed cracking when subjected to a 21-day low-temperature treatment from 10 days after flowering. In yellow soybeans, seed coat pigmentation is inhibited, leading to low proanthocyanidin levels in the seed coat. Proanthocyanidins accumulated on the dorsal side of the seed coat in Yukihomare under the 21-day low-temperature treatment. In addition, a straight seed coat split occurred on the dorsal side at the full-sized seed stage, resulting in seed cracking in this cultivar. Conversely, proanthocyanidin accumulation was suppressed throughout the seed coat in low-temperature-treated Toiku 248. We propose the following mechanism of seed cracking: proanthocyanidin accumulation and subsequent lignin deposition under low temperatures affects the physical properties of the seed coat, making it more prone to splitting. Further analyses uncovered differences in the physical properties of the seed coat between Yukihomare and Toiku 248. In particular, seed coat hardness decreased in Yukihomare, but not in Toiku 248, under the low-temperature treatment. Seed coat flexibility was higher in Toiku 248 than in Yukihomare under the low-temperature treatment, suggesting that the seed coat of low-temperature-treated Toiku 248 is more flexible than that of low-temperature-treated Yukihomare. These physical properties of the Toiku 248 seed coat observed under low-temperature conditions may contribute to its seed-cracking tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mineo Senda
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan.
| | - Michio Kawasaki
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
| | - Miho Hiraoka
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
| | - Kazuki Yamashita
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
| | - Hayato Maeda
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
| | - Naoya Yamaguchi
- Hokkaido Research Organization, Tokachi Agricultural Experiment Station, Shinsei, Memuro-cho, Kasai-gun, Hokkaido, 082-0081, Japan
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3
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Yasui T, Toda K, Yamada T, Yumoto S, Takahashi K, Takahashi M, Hajika M. Seed Coat Cracking of Soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) After Soaking and Cooking. Cereal Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1094/cchem-12-16-0284-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Yasui
- Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2, Kan-nondai 2-chome, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8518 Japan
| | - Kyoko Toda
- Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2, Kan-nondai 2-chome, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8518 Japan
| | - Tetsuya Yamada
- Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2, Kan-nondai 2-chome, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8518 Japan
| | - Setsuzo Yumoto
- Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2, Kan-nondai 2-chome, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8518 Japan
| | - Koji Takahashi
- Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2, Kan-nondai 2-chome, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8518 Japan
| | - Motoki Takahashi
- Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2, Kan-nondai 2-chome, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8518 Japan
| | - Makita Hajika
- Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2, Kan-nondai 2-chome, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8518 Japan
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4
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Senda M, Yamaguchi N, Hiraoka M, Kawada S, Iiyoshi R, Yamashita K, Sonoki T, Maeda H, Kawasaki M. Accumulation of proanthocyanidins and/or lignin deposition in buff-pigmented soybean seed coats may lead to frequent defective cracking. PLANTA 2017; 245:659-670. [PMID: 27995313 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-016-2638-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
MAIN CONCLUSION Defective cracking frequently occurs in buff-pigmented soybean seed coats, where proanthocyanidins accumulate and lignin is deposited, suggesting that proanthocyanidins and/or lignin may change physical properties and lead to defective cracking. In the seed production of many yellow soybean (Glycine max) cultivars, very low percentages of self-pigmented seeds are commonly found. This phenomenon is derived from a recessive mutation of the I gene inhibiting seed coat pigmentation. In Japan, most of these self-pigmented seeds are buff-colored, and frequently show multiple defective cracks in the seed coat. However, it is not known why cracking occurs specifically in buff seed coats. In this study, quantitative analysis was performed between yellow and buff soybean seed coats. Compared with yellow soybeans, in which defective cracking rarely occurs, contents of proanthocyanidins (PAs) and lignin were significantly higher in buff seed coats. Histochemical data of PAs and lignin in the seed coats strongly supported this result. Measurements of the physical properties of seed coats using a texture analyzer showed that a hardness value was significantly decreased in the buff seed coats. These results suggest that PA accumulation and/or lignin deposition may affect the physical properties of buff seed coats and lead to the defective cracking. This work contributes to understanding of the mechanism of defective cracking, which decreases the seed quality of soybean and related legumes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mineo Senda
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan.
| | - Naoya Yamaguchi
- Hokkaido Research Organization Tokachi Agricultural Experiment Station, 2, Minami 9 sen, Shinsei, Memuro-cho, Kasai-gun, Hokkaido, 082-0081, Japan
| | - Miho Hiraoka
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
| | - So Kawada
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
| | - Ryota Iiyoshi
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
| | - Kazuki Yamashita
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
| | - Tomonori Sonoki
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
| | - Hayato Maeda
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
| | - Michio Kawasaki
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, 3 Bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan
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5
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Kour A, Boone AM, Vodkin LO. RNA-Seq profiling of a defective seed coat mutation in Glycine max reveals differential expression of proline-rich and other cell wall protein transcripts. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96342. [PMID: 24828743 PMCID: PMC4020777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The plant cell wall performs a number of essential functions including providing shape to many different cell types and serving as a defense against potential pathogens. The net pattern mutation creates breaks in the seed coat of soybean (Glycine max) because of ruptured cell walls. Using RNA-Seq, we examined the seed coat transcriptome from three stages of immature seed development in two pairs of isolines with normal or defective seed coat phenotypes due to the net pattern. The genome-wide comparative study of the transcript profiles of these isolines revealed 364 differentially expressed genes in common between the two varieties that were further divided into different broad functional categories. Genes related to cell wall processes accounted for 19% of the differentially expressed genes in the middle developmental stage of 100-200 mg seed weight. Within this class, the cell wall proline-rich and glycine-rich protein genes were highly differentially expressed in both genetic backgrounds. Other genes that showed significant expression changes in each of the isoline pairs at the 100-200 mg seed weight stage were xylem serine proteinase, fasciclin-related genes, auxin and stress response related genes, TRANSPARENT TESTA 1 (TT1) and other transcription factors. The mutant appears to shift the timing of either the increase or decrease in the levels of some of the transcripts. The analysis of these data sets reveals the physiological changes that the seed coat undergoes during the formation of the breaks in the cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupreet Kour
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Anne M. Boone
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Lila O. Vodkin
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
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Sayama T, Nakazaki T, Ishikawa G, Yagasaki K, Yamada N, Hirota N, Hirata K, Yoshikawa T, Saito H, Teraishi M, Okumoto Y, Tsukiyama T, Tanisaka T. QTL analysis of seed-flooding tolerance in soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.). PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2009; 176:514-21. [PMID: 26493141 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2009.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2008] [Revised: 12/29/2008] [Accepted: 01/12/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.), varieties with seed-flooding tolerance at the geminating stage are desirable for breeding in countries with much rainfall at sowing time. Our study revealed great intervarietal variation in seed-flooding tolerance as evaluated by germination rate (GR) and normal seedling rate (NS). Pigmented seed coat and small seed weight tended to give a positive effect on seed-flooding tolerance. Subsequently, QTL analysis of GR and NS were performed and a total of four QTLs were detected. Among them, Sft1 on the linkage group H (LG_H) exhibited a large effect on GR after a 24-h treatment; however, Sft2 near the I locus on LG_A2 involved in seed coat pigmentation exhibited the largest effect on seed-flooding tolerance. Sft1, Sft3 and Sft4 were independent of seed coat color and seed weight. Based on the results, we discussed the physiological effects of genetic factors responsible for seed-flooding tolerance in soybean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Sayama
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Nakazaki
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Goro Ishikawa
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Yagasaki
- Nagano Chushin Agricultural Experiment Station, Shiojiri, Nagano 399-6461, Japan
| | - Naohiro Yamada
- Nagano Chushin Agricultural Experiment Station, Shiojiri, Nagano 399-6461, Japan
| | - Naoko Hirota
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Kaori Hirata
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Takanori Yoshikawa
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Hiroki Saito
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Teraishi
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Yutaka Okumoto
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Takuji Tsukiyama
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Takatoshi Tanisaka
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan.
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7
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Firnhaber C, Pühler A, Küster H. EST sequencing and time course microarray hybridizations identify more than 700 Medicago truncatula genes with developmental expression regulation in flowers and pods. PLANTA 2005; 222:269-83. [PMID: 15968508 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-005-1543-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2004] [Accepted: 02/25/2005] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
To evaluate the molecular mechanisms during pod and seed formation in legumes, starting with the development of reproductive organs, we constructed two cDNA libraries from developing flowers (MtFLOW) and pods including seeds (MtPOSE) of the model plant Medicago truncatula Gaertner. A total of 2,516 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) clustered into 1,776 nonredundant sequences (2k-set), which were annotated and assigned to functional classes. While about 30% of the ESTs encoded proteins of yet unknown function, typical annotations pointed to seed storage proteins, LTPs and lipoxygenases. The 2k-set was used to upgrade Mt6k-RIT microarrays (Küster et al. in J Biotechnol 108: 95, 2004) to Mt8k versions representing approximately 6,300 nonredundant M. truncatula genes. These were used to perform time course expression profiling studies based on hybridizations of samples that covered eight different developmental stages from flower buds to almost mature pods versus leaves as a common reference. About 180 up- and 70 downregulated genes were typically found for each stage and in total, 782 genes were either twofold up- or downregulated in at least one of the eight stages investigated. Based on this set, a combination of self-organizing map and hierarchical clustering revealed genes displaying expression regulation during characteristic stages of M. truncatula flower and pod development. Amongst those, several genes encoded proteins related to seed metabolism and development including novel regulators and proteins involved in signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Firnhaber
- Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Fakultät für Biologie, Universität Bielefeld, Postfach 100131, 33501 Bielefeld, Germany
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Dhaubhadel S, Kuflu K, Romero MC, Gijzen M. A soybean seed protein with carboxylate-binding activity. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2005; 56:2335-44. [PMID: 16061511 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eri226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The seed coat serves as a multifunctional organ with a role in protection and for the supply of nutrients to the embryo sac during development. The composition of the legume seed coat differs from other seed tissues in many ways including its protein composition. An abundant 24 kDa protein (SC24) has been purified and identified from soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr) seed hulls. The corresponding cDNA and genomic DNA clones for SC24 were isolated and characterized, and expression patterns were determined. The deduced protein sequence of 219 amino acids included an N-terminal signal peptide. Transcripts encoding SC24 were present in the seed coat from 30 days after pollination (DAP) until maturity, but the protein was not detected until the final stages of seed maturation. In mature seeds, most of the SC24 protein was localized to the parenchyma and aleurone layers of the seed coat. The expression of SC24 was also induced in vegetative tissues by pathogen infection and by wounding. The SC24 protein bound to an affinity column containing an isophthalic acid ligand, and was eluted with 7 mM citrate. Polyclonal antibodies raised against recombinant SC24 cross-reacted with the seed coat peroxidase enzyme, suggesting that these two proteins may share an antigenic determinant. Overall, the results indicate that SC24 belongs to a novel class of plant defence proteins with carboxylate-binding activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangeeta Dhaubhadel
- Southern Crop Protection and Food Research Center, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford Street, London, Ontario, Canada N5V 4T3
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9
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Abstract
Flavonoids are plant pigments that are synthesised from phenylalanine, generally display marvelous colors known from flower petals, mostly emit brilliant fluorescence when they are excited by UV light, and are ubiquitous to green plant cells. The flavonoids are used by botanists for taxonomical classification. They regulate plant growth by inhibition of the exocytosis of the auxin indolyl acetic acid, as well as by induction of gene expression, and they influence other biological cells in numerous ways. Flavonoids inhibit or kill many bacterial strains, inhibit important viral enzymes, such as reverse transcriptase and protease, and destroy some pathogenic protozoans. Yet, their toxicity to animal cells is low. Flavonoids are major functional components of many herbal and insect preparations for medical use, e.g., propolis (bee's glue) and honey, which have been used since ancient times. The daily intake of flavonoids with normal food, especially fruit and vegetables, is 1-2 g. Modern authorised physicians are increasing their use of pure flavonoids to treat many important common diseases, due to their proven ability to inhibit specific enzymes, to simulate some hormones and neurotransmitters, and to scavenge free radicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bent H Havsteen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kiel, Olshausenstrasse 40, D-24098, Kiel, Germany.
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Lahiri SD, Allison LA. Complementary expression of two plastid-localized sigma-like factors in maize. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2000; 123:883-94. [PMID: 10889237 PMCID: PMC59051 DOI: 10.1104/pp.123.3.883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/1999] [Accepted: 03/15/2000] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The eubacterial-like RNA polymerase of plastids is composed of organelle-encoded core subunits and nuclear-encoded sigma-factors. Families of sigma-like factors (SLFs) have been identified in several plants, including maize (Zea mays) and Arabidopsis. In vitro import assays determined that at least two of the maize sigma-like proteins have functional chloroplast transit peptides and thus are likely candidates for chloroplast transcriptional regulators. However, the roles of individual SLFs in chloroplast transcription remain to be determined. We have raised antibodies against the unique amino-terminal domains of two maize SLFs, ZmSig1 and ZmSig3, and have used these specific probes to examine the accumulation of each protein in different maize tissues and during chloroplast development. The expression of ZmSig1 is tissue specific and parallels the light-activated chloroplast development program in maize seedling leaves. Its accumulation in mature chloroplasts however, is not affected by subsequent changes in the light regime. It is interesting that the expression profile of ZmSig3 is complementary to that of ZmSig1. It accumulates in non-green tissues, including roots, etiolated seedling leaves, and the basal region of greening seedling leaves. The nonoverlapping expression patterns of these two plastid-localized SLFs suggest that they may direct differential expression of plastid genes during chloroplast development.
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Affiliation(s)
- S D Lahiri
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska, N258 Beadle Center, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0664, USA
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