Expression and role of matrix metalloproteinases MMP-2 and MMP-9 in human spinal column tumors

Construction of a Tool to Predict Overall Survival of Patients With Primary Spinal Tumors After Surgical Resection: A Real-World Analysis Based on the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Database

BACKGROUND

We aim to construct a practical clinical prediction model to accurately evaluate the overall survival (OS) of patients with primary spinal tumors after primary tumor resection, thereby aiding clinical decision-making.

METHODS

A total of 695 patients diagnosed with a primary spinal tumor, selected from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database, were included in this study. The Cox regression algorithm was applied to the training cohort to build the prognostic nomogram model. The nomogram's performance in terms of discrimination, calibration, and clinical usefulness was also assessed in the internal SEER validation cohort. The fitted prognostic nomogram was then used to create a web-based calculator.

RESULTS

Four independent prognostic factors were identified to establish a nomogram model for patients with primary spinal tumors who had undergone surgical resection. The C-index (.757 for the training cohort and .681 for the validation cohort) and the area under the curve values over time (both >.68) showed that the model exhibited satisfactory discrimination in both the SEER cohort. The calibration curve revealed that the projected and actual survival rates are very similar. The decision curve analysis also revealed that the model is clinically valuable and capable of identifying high-risk patients.

CONCLUSIONS

After developing a nomogram and a web-based calculator, we were able to reliably forecast the postoperative OS of patients with primary spinal tumors. These tools are expected to play an important role in clinical practice, informing clinicians in making decisions about patient care after surgery.

Epidemiology, management, and treatment outcomes of metastatic spinal melanoma

Metastatic spinal melanoma is a rare and aggressive disease process with poor prognosis. We review the literature on metastatic spinal melanoma, focusing on its epidemiology, management, and treatment outcomes. Demographics of metastatic spinal melanoma are similar to those for cutaneous melanoma, and cutaneous primary tumors tend to be most common. Decompressive surgical intervention and radiotherapy have traditionally been considered mainstays of treatment, and stereotactic radiosurgery has emerged as a promising approach in the operative management of metastatic spinal melanoma. While survival outcomes for metastatic spinal melanoma remain poor, they have improved in recent years with the advent of immune checkpoint inhibition, used in conjunction with surgery and radiotherapy. New treatment options remain under investigation, especially for patients with disease refractory to immunotherapy. We additionally explore several of these promising future directions. Nevertheless, further investigation of treatment outcomes, ideally incorporating high-quality prospective data from randomized controlled trials, is needed to identify optimal management of metastatic spinal melanoma.

Development and validation of nomograms predicting overall and cancer-specific survival for non-metastatic primary malignant bone tumor of spine patients

At present, no study has established a survival prediction model for non-metastatic primary malignant bone tumors of the spine (PMBS) patients. The clinical features and prognostic limitations of PMBS patients still require further exploration. Data on patients with non-metastatic PBMS from 2004 to 2015 were extracted from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database. Multivariate regression analysis using Cox, Best-subset and Lasso regression methods was performed to identify the best combination of independent predictors. Then two nomograms were structured based on these factors for overall survival (OS) and cancer-specific survival (CSS). The accuracy and applicability of the nomograms were assessed by area under the curve (AUC) values, calibration curves and decision curve analysis (DCA). Results: The C-index indicated that the nomograms of OS (C-index 0.753) and CSS (C-index 0.812) had good discriminative power. The calibration curve displays a great match between the model's predictions and actual observations. DCA curves show our models for OS (range: 0.09-0.741) and CSS (range: 0.075-0.580) have clinical value within a specific threshold probability range compared with the two extreme cases. Two nomograms and web-based survival calculators based on established clinical characteristics was developed for OS and CSS. These can provide a reference for clinicians to formulate treatment plans for patients.

Construction, Validation, and Visualization of Two Web-Based Nomograms for Predicting Overall Survival and Cancer-Specific Survival in Elderly Patients with Primary Osseous Spinal Neoplasms

Background

Primary osseous spinal neoplasms (POSNs) are the rarest tumor type in the spine. Very few studies have presented data on elderly patients with POSNs specifically. The present study was aimed at exploring the prognostic factors and developing two web-based nomograms to predict overall survival (OS) and cancer-specific survival (CSS) for this population.

Method

The data of elderly patients with POSNs was extracted from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database between 2004 and 2015. Cox regression analyses were performed to determine independent prognostic factors for OS and CSS, these prognostic factors were incorporated to establish nomograms. The discrimination of the nomograms was evaluated by the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve and the value of area under the curve (AUC). Calibration curve was plotted to assess the predictive accuracy of model. Decision curve analysis (DCA) was conducted to determine the net clinical benefit. Furthermore, two web-based survival rate calculators were developed.

Result

A total of 430 patients were finally selected into this study and were randomly assigned to the training set (302 cases) and validation set (128 cases). Of these, 289 patients were further considered for the analysis of CSS and were randomized into training set (205 cases) and validation set (84 cases). Based on the results of univariate and multivariate Cox analyses, variables that significantly correlated with survival outcomes were used to establish nomograms for OS and CSS prediction. Two established nomograms demonstrated good predictive performance. In the training set, the AUCs of the nomogram for predicting 12-, 24-, and 36-month OS were 0.849, 0.903, and 0.889, respectively, and those for predicting 12-, 24-, and 36-month CSS were 0.890, 0.880, and 0.881, respectively. Two web-based survival rate calculators were developed to estimate OS (https://research1.shinyapps.io/DynNomappOS/) and CSS (https://research1.shinyapps.io/DynNomappCSS/).

Conclusion

Novel nomograms based on identified clinicopathological factors were developed and can be used as a tool for clinicians to predict OS and CSS in elderly patients with POSNs. These models could help facilitate a personalized survival evaluation for this population.

Identifying the Prognosis Factors and Predicting the Survival Probability in Patients with Non-Metastatic Chondrosarcoma from the SEER Database

OBJECTIVE

To identify prognostic factors and establish nomograms for predicting overall survival (OS) and cause specific survival (CSS) of patients with non-metastatic chondrosarcoma.

METHODS

We collected information on patients with non-metastatic chondrosarcoma from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database between 2005 and 2014, together with data from the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University from 2011 to 2016. Variables including patients' baseline demographics (age, race, and gender), tumor characteristics (tumor size and extension, histology subtype, primary site, and American Joint Committee on Cancer [AJCC] stage), therapy (surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy), and socioeconomic status (SES) were extracted for further analysis. OS and CSS were retrieved as our researching endpoints. Patients from the database were regarded as the training set, and univariate analysis, Lasso regression and multivariate analysis as well as the random forest were used to explore the predictors and establish nomograms. To validate nomograms internally and externally, we applied bootstrapped validation internally with the training dataset, while the dataset for external validation was obtained from the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University. We estimated the discriminative ability of nomograms based on Cox proportional hazard regression models by means of calibration curves and the concordance index (C-index) of internal and external validation.

RESULTS

After the implementation of exclusion criteria, there were 1267 patients in the training set and 72 patients in the testing set with non-metastatic chondrosarcomas. Age, gender, grade, histological subtype, primary site, surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, being employed/unemployed, tumor size, and tumor extension were significantly associated with prognosis in the univariate analysis. Age, gender, tumor size and extension, primary site, surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, histological grade, and subtype were independent prognostic factors in the Cox models. The C-index of nomograms (internal: OS, 0.787; CSS, 0.821; external: OS, 0.777; CSS, 0.821) were higher than following conventional systems: AJCC sixth (OS, 0.640; CSS, 0.673) and seventh edition (OS, 0.675; CSS, 0.711).

CONCLUSIONS

Age, gender, tumor size and extension, surgery, histological grade, and subtype were independent prognostic factors for both OS and CSS. In addition, we revealed that chondrosarcomas in the trunk, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy were correlated with poor prognosis. Our nomograms based on significant clinicopathologic features can well predict the 3-year and 5-year survival probability of patients with non-metastatic chondrosarcoma and assist oncologists in making accurate survival evaluation.

New Lectins from Mediterranean Flora. Activity against HT29 Colon Cancer Cells

Experiments conducted in vitro and in vivo, as well as some preclinical trials for cancer therapeutics, support the antineoplastic properties of lectins. A screening of antitumoral activity on HT29 colon cancer cells, based on polypeptide characterization and specific lectin binding to HT29 cells membrane receptors, was performed in order to assess the bioactivities present in four Mediterranean plant species: Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus, Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. badia, Arbutus unedo and Corema album. Total leaf proteins from each species were evaluated with respect to cell viability and inhibitory activities on HT29 cells (cell migration, matrix metalloproteinase –MMP proteolytic activities). A discussion is presented on a possible mechanism justifying the specific binding of lectins to HT29 cell receptors. All species revealed the presence of proteins with affinity to HT29 cell glycosylated receptors, possibly explaining the differential antitumor activity exhibited by the two most promising species, Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. badia and Arbutus unedo.

Imbalance between matrix metalloproteinases and their tissue inhibitors in preeclampsia and gestational trophoblastic diseases

The invasion cascade exhibited by placental trophoblasts and cancerous cells bears many similarities, and it is attributed to extracellular matrix degradation mediated by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Although proper and controlled invasion by trophoblasts into the maternal uterus is an essential requirement for maintenance of normal pregnancy, any abnormality in this phenomenon results in the development of invasion-related disorders such as gestational trophoblastic diseases (GTDs) and preeclampsia. We studied the epigenetic basis of differential expression of two placental MMPs (MMP2 and MMP9) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP2 and TIMP1) during normal gestation and invasion-related disorders, i.e., preeclampsia and GTDs. Our study suggests the association of H3K9/27me3 with differential expression of these MMPs and their inhibitors, which regulate the placental invasion during normal pregnancy, whereas no role of CpG methylation was observed in the differential expression of MMPs/TIMPs. Further, development of GTDs was associated with abnormally higher expression of these MMPs and lower levels of their inhibitors, whereas the reverse trends were observed for MMPs and their TIMPs in case of preeclampsia, in association with abnormal changes in H3K9/27me3. These results suggest the involvement of higher levels of MMPs in an aggressive invasive behavior depicted by GTDs, whereas lower levels of these MMPs in shallow and poor invasive phenotype associated with preeclampsia. Thus, our study shows the significance of a proper balance regulated by histone trimethylation between differential expression of MMPs and their TIMPs for maintaining normal pregnancy and its deregulation as a contributing factor for pathogenesis of invasive disorders during pregnancy.

The effect of imiquimod on matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases in malignant melanoma cell invasion

Background

A number of reports have been published regarding the use of imiquimod for the treatment of melanoma in situ and metastatic melanoma. Essential steps in the process of melanoma invasion and metastasis include degradation of basement membranes and remodeling of the extracellular matrix by proteolytic enzymes, including matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs).

Objective

To evaluate the antiinvasive effect of imiquimod in human malignant melanoma cell lines, SK-MEL-2 and SK-MEL-24, in vitro, and to investigate imiquimod-induced changes in the expression of MMPs and TIMPs.

Methods

Invasiveness of melanoma cell lines following imiquimod treatment was evaluated by invasion assays. In order to investigate the mechanism of the anti-invasive effect of imiquimod, mRNA and protein levels of MMP-2, -9, membrane type 1 (MT1)-MMP, TIMP-1, and -2 were assessed by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, gelatin zymography, and western blotting.

Results

Imiquimod treatment decreased in vitro viability of melanoma cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Imiquimod also elicited a concentration-dependent suppression of invasion in both melanoma cell lines. A concentration-dependent decrease in MMP-2 and MT1-MMP protein levels and a concentration-dependent increase in TIMP-1 and -2 protein levels by imiquimod was observed in both melanoma cell lines. However, expression of MMP-9 protein was increased in SK-MEL-2 but decreased in SK-MEL-24 with increasing imiquimod concentrations. Imiquimod elicited alterations in MMPs and TIMPs mRNA levels that parallel the observed changes in protein levels.

Conclusion

Imiquimod may elicit an anti-invasive effect on human melanoma cells by regulating MMPs and TIMPs.

Synergistic protection of MLC 1 against cardiac ischemia/reperfusion-induced degradation: a novel therapeutic concept for the future

Cardiovascular diseases are a major burden to society and a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the developed world. Despite clinical and scientific advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms and treatment of heart injury, novel therapeutic strategies are needed to prevent morbidity and mortality due to cardiac events. Growing evidence reported over the last decade has focused on the intracellular targets for proteolytic degradation by MMP-2. Of particular interest is the establishment of MMP-2-dependent degradation of cardiac contractile proteins in response to increased oxidative stress conditions, such as ischemia/reperfusion. The authors' laboratory has identified a promising preventive therapeutic target using the classical pharmacological concept of synergy to target MMP-2 activity and its proteolytic action on a cardiac contractile protein. This manuscript provides an overview of the body of evidence that supports the importance of cardiac contractile protein degradation in ischemia/reperfusion injury and the use of synergy to protect against it.

S-adenosylmethionine, a methyl donor, up regulates tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 in colorectal cancer

DNA methylation is a fundamental epigenetic mechanism in regulating the expression of genes controlling crucial cell functions in cancer development. Gene silencing via CpG island methylation/demethylation in the promoter region is one of the mechanisms by which different genes are inactivated/activated in human cancers. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) is known to antagonize matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity and to suppress tumor growth, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. TIMP-2 expression has been found to be both upregulated and downregulated in various cancers. The inconsistent TIMP-2 expression and unclear epigenetic regulation lead us to investigate its role in colorectal cancer in the presence of a methylating agent. Highly invasive human colorectal cells SW-620 were treated with the methyl donor S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) and its effect was evaluated by cell proliferation, cell cycle, invasion and migration assay. The ability of SAM to down regulate a panel of activated prometastatic, angiogenesis and growth- and cell cycle-regulatory genes was evaluated using end-point and real-time PCR. Treatment of SW-620 with SAM diminished cell proliferation and altered cell cycle kinetic G2/M phase cell cycle arrest. An in vitro matrigel invasion assay of SAM-treated cells showed a significant reduction in the invasive potential compared to untreated SW-620 cells. Treatment of SW-620 cells with SAM resulted in activation of TIMP-2 and inhibition of the expression of genes such as MMP (MMP-2, MT1-MMP), urokinase plasminogen activator, and vascular endothelial growth factors. The level of expression of tumor suppressor and apoptotic genes was not significantly higher compared to the untreated control. No changes in the levels of expression of genes (growth and cell cycle regulator), such as TGF-β, Smad2, Smad4, and p21 were observed. Our data support the hypothesis that TIMP-2, along with other prometastatic genes, is hypomethylated and expressed differently in colorectal cancer. Further in-depth analysis is warranted to confirm the promoter region CpG methylation pattern of the TIMP-2 gene.

Aberrant DNA methylation and prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most prevalent cancer, a significant contributor to morbidity and a leading cause of cancer-related death in men in Western industrialized countries. In contrast to genetic changes that vary among individual cases, somatic epigenetic alterations are early and highly consistent events. Epigenetics encompasses several different phenomena, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, RNA interference, and genomic imprinting. Epigenetic processes regulate gene expression and can change malignancy-associated phenotypes such as growth, migration, invasion, or angiogenesis. Methylations of certain genes are associated with PCa progression. Compared to normal prostate tissues, several hypermethylated genes have also been identified in benign prostate hyperplasia, which suggests a role for aberrant methylation in this growth dysfunction. Global and gene-specific DNA methylation could be affected by environmental and dietary factors. Among other epigenetic changes, aberrant DNA methylation might have a great potential as diagnostic or prognostic marker for PCa and could be tested in tumor tissues and various body fluids (e.g., serum, urine). The DNA methylation markers are simple in nature, have high sensitivity, and could be detected either quantitatively or qualitatively. Availability of genome-wide screening methodologies also allows the identification of epigenetic signatures in high throughput population studies. Unlike irreversible genetic changes, epigenetic alterations are reversible and could be used for PCa targeted therapies.

Antimetastatic effects and mechanisms of apo-8'-lycopenal, an enzymatic metabolite of lycopene, against human hepatocarcinoma SK-Hep-1 cells

Lycopene is primarily metabolized by carotenoid monoxygenase II into apo-8'- and apo-12'-lycopenal in the rat liver. Although lycopene possesses antimetastatic activity in a highly invasive hepatoma SK-Hep-1 cell line, little is known whether its metabolites have a similar effect. In this study, we investigated the antimetastatic effects of apo-8'-lycopenal (1-10 μM) in comparison with lycopene (10 μM) in SK-Hep-1 cells. We found that both apo-8'-lycopenal and lycopene inhibited the invasion and migration of SK-Hep-1 cells, and the effect of apo-8'-lycopenal was stronger than that of lycopene at the same concentration (10 μM). Mechanistically, apo-8'-lycopenal: 1) decreased the activities and protein expression of metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and -9; 2) increased the protein expression of nm23-H1 and the tissue inhibitor of MMP (TIMP)-1 and -2; 3) suppressed protein expression of Rho small GTPases; and 4) inhibited focal adhesion kinase-mediated signaling pathway, such as ERK/p38 and PI3K-Akt axis. Overall, these results demonstrate that apo-8'-lycopenal possesses antimetastatic activity in SK-Hep-1 cells and that this effect is stronger than that of lycopene, suggesting that the antimetastatic effect may be attributed, at least in part, to its metabolites such as apo-8'-lycopenal.

DNA methylation in promoter region as biomarkers in prostate cancer

The prostate gland is the most common site of cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death in American men. Recent emerging molecular biological technologies help us to know that epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation within the regulatory (promoter) regions of genes are associated with transcriptional silencing in cancer. Promoter hypermethylation of critical pathway genes could be potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for prostate cancer. In this chapter, we updated current information on methylated genes associated with the development and progression of prostate cancer. Over 40 genes have been investigated for methylation in promoter region in prostate cancer. These methylated genes are involved in critical pathways, such as DNA repair, metabolism, and invasion/metastasis. The role of hypermethylated genes in regulation of critical pathways in prostate cancer is discussed. These findings may provide new information of the pathogenesis, the exciting potential to be predictive and to provide personalized treatment of prostate cancer. Indeed, some epigenetic alterations in prostate tumors are being translated into clinical practice for therapeutic use.

Promoter hypermethylation in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

The prostate gland is the most common site of cancer and the second leading cause of cancer mortality in American men. It is well known that epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation within the regulatory (promoter) regions of genes are associated with transcriptional silencing in cancer. Promoter hypermethylation of critical pathway genes could be potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for prostate cancer.

METHODS

This review discusses current information on methylated genes associated with prostate cancer development and progression.

RESULTS

Over 30 genes have been investigated for promoter methylation in prostate cancer. These methylated genes are involved in critical pathways, such as DNA repair, metabolism, and invasion/metastasis. The role of hypermethylated genes in regulation of critical pathways in prostate cancer is reviewed.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings may provide new information of the pathogenesis of prostate cancer. Certain epigenetic alterations in prostate tumors are being translated into clinical practice for therapeutic use.

Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases are essential for the inflammatory response in cancer cells

Inflammation plays a critical role in the development of cancer. Matrix Metalloproteinase (MMP) functions in the remodeling of the extracellular matrix that is integral for many normal and pathological processes such as morphogenesis, angiogenesis, tissue repair, and tumor invasion. The tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) family regulates the activity of multifunctional metalloproteinases. In this paper, we discuss the role and mechanism of MMP and TIMP in regulating inflammation responses in solid tumors. We discuss the mechanism of MMP and inflammation in melanoma, colon cancer, breast cancer, and prostate cancer. We highlight the roles of the TIMP-2 in modulating the proinflammatory NF-κB pathway in melanoma and lung caner cells. Based on the molecular mechanisms of TIMPs and MMPs in inflammation and cancer, we can design new strategies for cancer therapy.

Matrix Metalloproteinase Activity in the Stromal Cell of Giant Cell Tumor of Bone

Giant cell tumor of bone (GCT) is a destructive and potentially metastatic bone tumour in which the characteristic giant cells have classically been considered the culprits in bone destruction. However, the neoplastic element of the tumour consists of propagative osteoblast-like stromal cells that may play a role in bone resorption. The objectives of this study were to determine the expression and activity of the gelatinases, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9, in GCT stromal cells, and to determine if these cells have bone-resorbing capabilities. We performed immunohistochemistry on clinical specimens, and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and zymography on cell lysates and conditioned media from cultured clinical GCT specimens in order to evaluate the expression and activity of MMP-2 and-9 in GCT stromal cells. Our results support the fact that GCT stromal cells express MMP-2 and MMP-9 and are capable of gelatin degradation in vitro. These cells may therefore play a role in bone destruction in GCT.

Soybean saponin inhibits tumor cell metastasis by modulating expressions of MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP- 2

The antimetastatic properties of soybean saponin were investigated by evaluating matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-2 and MMP-9) production in HT-1080 cells. The mRNA expression levels of MMP-2 and MMP-9 were determined by RT-PCR analysis. The levels of secreted MMP-2, MMP-9 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) were determined by gelatin zymography and/or ELISA. The invasion of a Matrigel-coated membrane by human fibrosarcoma HT-1080 and HT-29 colon cancer cells was quantitatively assessed by counting the migrated cells. The treatment of HT-1080 cells with soybean saponin inhibited the mRNA expression of and reduced the amounts of secreted MMP-2 and MMP-9, whereas it increased the amount of secreted TIMP-2 dose-dependently. Soybean saponin significantly inhibited the invasion of HT-1080 cells through a Matrigel-coated membrane. The antimetastatic properties by soybean saponin were further confirmed by in vivo mice experiment via the tail vein injection of CT-26 colon cancer cells after feeding the mice the dietary soybean saponin. The incidence of metastatic tumor colonization of lungs of mice moderately decreased 2 weeks after the tail vein injection of CT-26 cells. Our current data support the notion that soybean saponin inhibits tumor cell metastasis by suppressing MMP-2 and MMP-9 productions, and stimulating TIMP-2 secretion, thereby suggesting that soybean saponin has a chemopreventive property against cancer metastasis.

Epigenetic inactivation of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) gene in human prostate tumors

Gene silencing via CpG island methylation in the promoter region is one of the mechanisms by which tumor suppressor genes are inactivated in human cancers. Previous studies have shown that the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP)-2 gene, which is an endogenous inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases involved in cell invasion and tumorigenesis, is downregulated or silenced in a variety of human cancer cell lines. Here, we investigated the mechanism underlying TIMP-2 expression in prostate cancer cell lines and primary prostate tumor samples. We observed a strong correlation between promoter hypermethylation and lost expression of TIMP-2 gene, which was supported by other results demonstrating that promoter demethylation by 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine and trichostatin A reactivated TIMP-2 and restored its expression in TIMP-2-silenced metastatic prostate cell lines. These results were further substantiated by a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay, showing the preferential binding of MeCP2 to methylated CpG island in TIMP-2-silenced metastatic prostate cell lines. In vitro Matrigel invasion assays showed that re-expression of TIMP-2 after a combined treatment with 5-aza and trichostatin-A in metastatic prostate cells resulted in a significant reduction of tumor cell invasion. Furthermore, CpG methylation of TIMP-2 promoter was also shown in primary prostate tumors that expressed decreased TIMP-2 protein levels. These results suggest that the downregulation of the TIMP-2 gene is associated with promoter methylation and that this may play an important role in prostate cancer progression during the invasive and metastatic stages of the disease.

Neurosurgical oncology at the university of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center: its genesis and evolution

The practice of neurosurgery at The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center began in 1944 with one neurosurgeon among the 11 physicians present in a makeshift 16-room outpatient clinic at a temporary location. Neurosurgical oncology evolved as the hospital did, first as a neurosurgery service in 1951, then as the Section of Neurosurgery within the Department of Head and Neck Surgery in 1979, and finally, as the Department of Neurosurgery in 1990. Although M. D. Anderson is now one of the largest institutions in the world devoted exclusively to cancer patient care, research, education, and prevention, it has an unusual history, which is reviewed in terms of the institution's origin in 1941, its development under three presidents, and its fostering of neurosurgical oncology. We chronicle the growth and development of the department from 1990 to 2003 and describe the unique opportunities it presents for surgical innovation, for clinical and basic research, for training residents and fellows, and for multidisciplinary collaboration in neurosurgical oncology.

Inhibition of cell invasion by indomethacin on glioma cell lines: in vitro study

Malignant glioma invasion into the surrounding brain tissue is still a major problem for any therapeutical methods. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been implicated as important factors in this pathological process. In this study, one of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) indomethacin was employed to investigate the effect of inhibition of cell invasion mediated by MMP-2 and MMP-9 in human malignant glioma cell lines, A172, U87MG, U251MG, and U373MG in vitro. MTT assay was firstly examined to determine non-cytotoxic dose range, then gelatin zymography, matrigel invasion assay, migration assay and MMP-2 activity assay for 24 h exposure in indomethacin were employed to assess the inhibitory effect of indomethacin. MTT assay revealed that dose with 0, 50, and 500 microM/ml were non-cytotoxic. Zymography demonstrated: (a) expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity was downregulated along with elevated dose of indomethacin. (b) MMP-2 activity that changed from pro-MMP-2 to active form of MMP-2 in supernatants of cell lines could not be inhibited by indomethacin. Invasion assay disclosed that the number of invading cells through the matrigel were significantly decreased in a dose dependent manner. Migration assay indicated indomethacin did not affect cells migration. MMP-2 activity assay showed the total and active MMP-2 secretion was suppressed by 500 microM/ml of indomethacin. Our present study is the first report on inhibitive effect of indomethacin mediated by MMP-2 and MMP-9 in invasion assay of glioma cell lines. The current study suggested that non-cytotoxic level of indomethacin was able to reduce the cell invasion of malignant gliomas mediated by MMP-2 and MMP-9, but it did not affected on cell motility. It also lowered down the activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9, and could reduce of MMP-2 secretion of cell lines. Thus, high concentration of indomethacin within non-cytotoxic dose might offer a new therapeutic strategy to impair cell invasion of gliomas.

Histological observations on the microenvironment of osteolytic bone metastasis by breast carcinoma cell line

Bone tissue, with its dynamic microenvironment featuring osteoclastic bone resorption, angiogenesis and matrix degradation, appears to facilitate proliferation of tumor cells after the onset of bone metastasis. In this study, we examined metastatic lesions in the femora of BALB/c nu/nu mice two weeks after intracardiac injection with human breast carcinoma MDA-231 cells. Histopathological observations showed the metastatic lesions close to the chondro-osseous junction, and revealed MDA-231 cells loosely intermingled with different cell types such as osteoblasts, fibroblastic stromal cells, osteoclasts and endothelial cells. In the metastatic nest, many tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAPase)-positive osteoclasts accumulated in direct contact with or were close to alkaline phosphatase (ALPase)- or receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL)-positive osteoblastic cells. It seems likely that osteoclastogenesis is mediated through cell-to-cell contacts with ALPase- and RANKL-expressing osteoblastic cells. Formation of many capillaries lacking complete basal membranes and pericytes ratified the results of in situ hybridization, which revealed intense expression of VEGF in tumor nests, and therefore, indicated ongoing tumor-induced angiogenesis. The tumor cells possessed matrix metallo-proteinases (MMPs)-1 and -9, and frequently extended their stout cytoplasmic processes into fragmented fibrillar components of the growth plate cartilage, implicating degradation of cartilaginous matrix. Thus, osteolytic bone metastasis has demonstrated pathological features as tumor-induced angiogenesis and degradation of extracellular matrix, in addition to osteoclastogenesis. This complex interplay between tumor cells and host tissues may enable and nourish the establishment of a microenvironment that facilitates tumor progression.

Irradiation differentially affects substratum-dependent survival, adhesion, and invasion of glioblastoma cell lines

Effects of ionising radiation on extracellular matrix (ECM)-modulated cell survival and on adhesion and invasion are not well understood. In particular, the aggressiveness of glioblastoma multiforme has been associated with tumour cell invasion into adjacent normal brain tissue. To examine these effects in more depth, four human glioblastoma cell lines (A-172, U-138, LN-229 and LN-18) were irradiated on fibronectin (FN), Matrigel, BSA or polystyrene. Major findings of this study include a significantly increased survival of irradiated A-172 but not of irradiated U-138, LN-229, and LN-18 cells on FN or Matrigel compared to cells irradiated on polystyrene or BSA. Irradiation induced a dose-dependent increase in functional β1- and β3-integrins in all four glioma cell lines. This integrin induction caused improved cell adhesion to FN or Matrigel. In contrast to U-138, LN-229 and LN-18 cells, irradiation strongly impaired A-172 cell invasion. Invasion of all cell lines was inhibited by anti-integrin antibodies, the disintegrin echistatin and the MMP-2/-9 inhibitor III. Additionally, β1- and β3-integrins modulated basal and radiation-altered gelatinolytic activity of MMP-2. Tested glioblastoma cell lines showed a differential cellular susceptibility to FN or Matrigel which affected the cellular radiosensitivity. Three out of four glioma cell lines demonstrated a combination of a substratum-independent survival after irradiation and an invasive potential which was not affected by irradiation. β1- and β3-integrins were identified to play a substantial, regulatory role in survival, adhesion, invasion and MMP-2 activity. Detailed insights into radioresistance and invasion processes might offer new therapeutic strategies to enhance cell killing of lethal high-grade astrocytoma.

Developmental expression of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 and their potential role in the histogenesis of the cerebellar cortex

The development of the cerebellar cortex depends on intrinsic genetic programs and orchestrated cell-cell/cell-matrix interactions. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are proteolytic enzymes that play an important role in these interactions. MMP-2 and MMP-9 are involved in diverse neuronal functions including migration, process extension, and synaptic plasticity. We investigated the spatiotemporal pattern of expression/activity of MMP-2/MMP-9 in the developing cerebellum and their role in the histogenesis of the cerebellar cortex. The levels of transcripts of MMP-2/MMP-9 were measured with real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. An initial decrease in MMP-2/MMP-9 transcripts was observed between postnatal days 3 (PD3) and PD6, and the mRNA levels remained relatively constant thereafter. Zymographic analysis revealed that the expression/activity of MMP-2/MMP-9 persisted longer than their transcripts; the downregulation occurred around PD9, suggesting a mechanism of translational or post-translational regulation. The gelatinase activity was localized in the external granule layer (EGL) and the internal granule layer during PD3-PD12. The immunoreactivity of MMP-2 was mainly localized in the EGL, the Bergmann glial fibers, and the Purkinje cell layer (PCL), whereas MMP-9 immunoreactivity was detected intensively in the PCL and the extracellular space of the molecular layer. Expression of MMP-9 was relatively weak in the EGL. The immunoreactivity of MMP-2/MMP-9 became undetectable after PD21. A similar expression pattern of MMP-2/MMP-9 was observed in organotypic cerebellar slice cultures. Exposure of organotypic slices to a specific MMP-2/MMP-9 inhibitor significantly increased the thickness of the EGL and concurrently decreased the number of migrating granule neurons in the molecular layer. Thus, MMP-2 and MMP-9 play a role in the postnatal cerebellar morphogenesis.

Inhibition of cervical lymph node metastasis by marimastat (BB-2516) in an orthotopic oral squamous cell carcinoma implantation model

Activation of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) is a common event in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. An OSC-19 cell line, derived from human oral squamous cell carcinoma and known to metastasize to cervical lymph nodes, was implanted into the lingual margin of mice. The effect of marimastat (BB-2516), a broad MMP inhibitor, on the suppression of regional cervical lymph node metastasis was evaluated with an orthotopic implantation nude mice model. Marimastat was given immediately after OSC-19 implantation and continuously administered by an osmotic pump. The mice were divided into three groups by marimastat dose; Group A; 0 mg/kg/day, Group B; 30 mg/kg/day, and Group C; 150 mg/kg/day. Twenty-one days after implantation, primary oral tumors and cervical lymph nodes were resected. Cervical lymph node status was microscopically examined. Activation of MMP-2 in primary oral tumor was examined by gelatin zymography. Both cervical lymph node metastasis and activation of MMP-2 were significantly suppressed in Group C (P < 0.05). Moreover, the Group C mice had a significantly better survival than group A (P = 0.0026). There was a significant difference between Group A and Group C in terms of proliferation of tumor cells by proliferating cell nuclear antigen immunostaining (P = 0.0120). These results suggest a positive role for marimastat in the inhibition of MMP-2 activation and prevention of cervical lymph node metastasis in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Improvement of survival in patients with OSCC could be expected using adjuvant therapy with marimastat.

Matrix metalloproteinases in cancer: prognostic markers and therapeutic targets

Degradation of extracellular matrix is crucial for malignant tumour growth, invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc-dependent neutral endopeptidases collectively capable of degrading essentially all matrix components. Elevated levels of distinct MMPs can be detected in tumour tissue or serum of patients with advanced cancer and their role as prognostic indicators in cancer is studied. In addition, therapeutic intervention of tumour growth and invasion based on inhibition of MMP activity is under intensive investigation and several MMP inhibitors are in clinical trials in cancer. In this review, we discuss the current view on the feasibility of MMPs as prognostic markers and as targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer.

Expression of the matrix metalloproteinase 9 in Hodgkin's disease is independent of EBV status

BACKGROUND

In vitro the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) encoded latent membrane protein 1 (LMP-1) has been shown to upregulate expression of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), a member of a family of zinc dependent endopeptidases that is believed to facilitate tumour invasion and metastasis by degradation of the extracellular matrix.

AIM

To test whether the expression of MMP-9 in Hodgkin's disease correlates with EBV status and survival and to investigate whether LMP-1 expression affects MMP-9 concentrations in the Hodgkin's disease cell line, L428.

METHODS

MMP-9 expression was measured by means of immunohistochemistry in a series of Hodgkin's disease tumours and this expression was correlated with EBV status and survival. The influence of LMP-1 on MMP-9 expression was also investigated in the Hodgkin's disease cell line, L428.

RESULTS

MMP-9 expression was demonstrated in the malignant Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cells of all (n = 86) formalin fixed, paraffin wax embedded Hodgkin's disease tumours examined. Although the intensity of MMP-9 immunostaining varied between cases, there was no correlation between MMP-9 expression and EBV status or survival. MMP-9 expression was also detected in a variety of non-malignant cells, including fibroblasts. MMP-9 was detected by zymography in the L428 and KMH2 Hodgkin's disease cell lines, whereas low or undetectable amounts of MMP-9 were found in the L591 Hodgkin's disease cell line. Induction of LMP-1 expression in the Hodgkin's disease cell line L428 did not result in a detectable increase in the values of MMP-9 as measured by zymography.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that MMP-9 is consistently expressed by the Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cells of Hodgkin's disease tumours and by the Hodgkin's disease cell lines, L428 and KMH2. However, this expression does not appear to be related either to LMP-1 values or to survival.