1
|
Callahan ML, Storzbach D. Sensory sensitivity and posttraumatic stress disorder in blast exposed veterans with mild traumatic brain injury. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY-ADULT 2018; 26:365-373. [PMID: 29465307 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2018.1433179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the unique contribution of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms on sensory sensitivity following mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) in an Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) Veteran sample. We hypothesized that the effect of PTSD on noise and light sensitivity following mTBI would be largely driven by PTSD-related hyperarousal symptoms. We compared the relationships between PTSD, noise sensitivity, and light sensitivity of 49 OEF/OIF Veterans with mTBI to that of 23 OEF/OIF Veterans without mTBI. Results suggest that intrusive experiences were significantly related to noise sensitivity in the mTBI group, while light sensitivity was significantly associated with avoidance. Hyperarousal symptoms significantly accounted for noise sensitivity in the no-blast, non-TBI group, whereas PTSD did not affect light sensitivity in this group. These data suggest that PTSD symptoms may uniquely influence the experience of noise and light sensitivity. As such, treatment targeting specific PTSD symptoms may yield clinically significant improvement in sensory sensitivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megan L Callahan
- a VA Portland Health Care System , Portland , Oregon , USA.,b Department of Psychiatry , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , Oregon , USA
| | - Daniel Storzbach
- a VA Portland Health Care System , Portland , Oregon , USA.,b Department of Psychiatry , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , Oregon , USA.,c Department of Neurology , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , Oregon , USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Nathan DE, Bellgowan JAF, French LM, Wolf J, Oakes TR, Mielke J, Sham EB, Liu W, Riedy G. Assessing the Impact of Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms on the Resting-State Default Mode Network in a Military Chronic Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Sample. Brain Connect 2017; 7:236-249. [DOI: 10.1089/brain.2016.0433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Dominic E. Nathan
- National Intrepid Center of Excellence (NICoE), Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
- North Tide LLC, Dulles, Virginia
- Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Julie A. Frost Bellgowan
- National Intrepid Center of Excellence (NICoE), Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
- North Tide LLC, Dulles, Virginia
| | - Louis M. French
- National Intrepid Center of Excellence (NICoE), Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
- Center of Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine (CNRM), Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Jonathan Wolf
- National Intrepid Center of Excellence (NICoE), Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Terrence R. Oakes
- National Intrepid Center of Excellence (NICoE), Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Jeannine Mielke
- National Intrepid Center of Excellence (NICoE), Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Elyssa B. Sham
- National Intrepid Center of Excellence (NICoE), Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
- North Tide LLC, Dulles, Virginia
| | - Wei Liu
- National Intrepid Center of Excellence (NICoE), Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
- North Tide LLC, Dulles, Virginia
| | - Gerard Riedy
- National Intrepid Center of Excellence (NICoE), Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
- Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Matthew BJ, Gedzior JS. A Disabled Army Veteran with Severe Traumatic Brain Injury and Chronic Suicidal Ideation. Psychiatr Ann 2016. [DOI: 10.3928/00485713-20160209-01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
4
|
|
5
|
Gill IJ, Mullin S, Simpson J. Are metacognitive processes associated with posttraumatic stress symptom severity following acquired brain injury? Disabil Rehabil 2014; 37:692-700. [DOI: 10.3109/09638288.2014.939774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
|
6
|
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI) often coexist because brain injuries are often sustained in traumatic experiences. This review outlines the significant overlap between PTSD and TBI by commencing with a critical outline of the overlapping symptoms and problems of differential diagnosis. The impact of TBI on PTSD is then described, with increasing evidence suggesting that mild TBI can increase risk for PTSD. Several explanations are offered for this enhanced risk. Recent evidence suggests that impairment secondary to mild TBI is largely attributable to stress reactions after TBI, which challenges the long-held belief that postconcussive symptoms are a function of neurological insult This recent evidence is pointing to new directions for treatment of postconcussive symptoms that acknowledge that treating stress factors following TBI may be the optimal means to manage the effects of many TBIs,
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Bryant
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
|
8
|
Brewin CR. The Nature and Significance of Memory Disturbance in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2011; 7:203-27. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 233] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chris R. Brewin
- Clinical Educational & Health Psychology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom;
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Post-traumatic amnesia and the nature of post-traumatic stress disorder after mild traumatic brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2009; 15:862-7. [PMID: 19703323 DOI: 10.1017/s1355617709990671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence and nature of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) is controversial because of the apparent paradox of suffering PTSD with impaired memory for the traumatic event. In this study, 1167 survivors of traumatic injury (MTBI: 459, No TBI: 708) were assessed for PTSD symptoms and post-traumatic amnesia during hospitalization, and were subsequently assessed for PTSD 3 months later (N = 920). At the follow-up assessment, 90 (9.4%) patients met criteria for PTSD (MTBI: 50, 11.8%; No-TBI: 40, 7.5%); MTBI patients were more likely to develop PTSD than no-TBI patients, after controlling for injury severity (adjusted odds ratio: 1.86; 95% confidence interval, 1.78-2.94). Longer post-traumatic amnesia was associated with less severe intrusive memories at the acute assessment. These findings indicate that PTSD may be more likely following MTBI, however, longer post-traumatic amnesia appears to be protective against selected re-experiencing symptoms.
Collapse
|
10
|
Vasterling JJ, Verfaellie M, Sullivan KD. Mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder in returning veterans: perspectives from cognitive neuroscience. Clin Psychol Rev 2009; 29:674-84. [PMID: 19744760 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2009] [Revised: 08/11/2009] [Accepted: 08/13/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A significant proportion of military personnel deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) has been exposed to war-zone events potentially associated with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There has been significant controversy regarding healthcare policy for those service members and military veterans who returned from OEF/OIF deployments with both mild TBI and PTSD. There is currently little empirical evidence available to address these controversies. This review uses a cognitive neuroscience framework to address the potential impact of mild TBI on the development, course, and clinical management of PTSD. The field would benefit from research efforts that take into consideration the potential differential impact of mild TBI with versus without persistent cognitive deficits, longitudinal work examining the trajectory of PTSD symptoms when index trauma events involve TBI, randomized clinical trials designed to examine the impact of mild TBI on response to existing PTSD treatment interventions, and development and examination of potential treatment augmentation strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer J Vasterling
- Psychology Service and VA National Center for PTSD, VA Boston Healthcare System, (116B), 150 S. Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02130, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Yeates G. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder after Traumatic Brain Injury and Interpersonal Relationships: Contributions from Object-Relations Perspectives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/15294145.2009.10773613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
12
|
Abstract
A number of controversies and debates have arisen over the years surrounding the dual diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Many of these have centred around the around the degree of protection provided by TBI against developing the disorder. The following is brief review of the literature in this area to help resolve some of these issues and to address a number of specific challenges which arise when working with this patient group.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nigel S King
- Community Head Injury Service, The Camborne Centre, Bedgrove, Aylesbury, Bucks, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Schnyder U, Wittmann L, Friedrich-Perez J, Hepp U, Moergeli H. Posttraumatic stress disorder following accidental injury: rule or exception in Switzerland? PSYCHOTHERAPY AND PSYCHOSOMATICS 2008; 77:111-8. [PMID: 18230944 DOI: 10.1159/000112888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is still marked variability in the findings concerning psychiatric disorders associated with traumatic injury. The aim of this study was to determine the incidence of acute stress disorder (ASD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following accidental injuries, and to predict the PTSD symptom level at 6 months, taking into particular consideration the role of pre-existing psychiatric morbidity and insufficient command of the local language. METHOD A total of 255 accident survivors who were hospitalized for at least 2 consecutive nights at a Swiss university hospital for treatment of recently acquired physical injuries were interviewed within 2 weeks of the trauma and 6 months after the accident. Patients who did not have a good command of German but were fluent in Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Serbo-Croatian or Albanian were assessed using interpreters. The main outcome measure was the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. RESULTS Ten patients (3.9%) were diagnosed as having ASD. At 6 months, 8 patients (3.1%) had PTSD. A regression model using 12 potential predictor variables explained 40% of the variance of PTSD symptoms; mild traumatic brain injury (p < 0.001), pain (p < 0.05), ASD symptom level (p < 0.001) and emotional coping (p = 0.001) predicted higher PTSD symptom levels, while high Sense of Coherence (p < 0.05) and perceived responsibility for the accident (p < 0.01) were associated with lower PTSD symptom levels at follow-up. CONCLUSIONS ASD and PTSD seem to occur less frequently following accidental injuries than previously reported in the literature. Pre-existing psychiatric morbidity and lack of proficiency in the locally spoken language do not appear to play an important role in the development of PTSD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Schnyder
- Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Greenspan AI, Stringer AY, Phillips VL, Hammond FM, Goldstein FC. Symptoms of post-traumatic stress: intrusion and avoidance 6 and 12 months after TBI. Brain Inj 2006; 20:733-42. [PMID: 16809206 DOI: 10.1080/02699050600773276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PRIMARY OBJECTIVES (1) To examine survivors with traumatic brain injury (TBI) for symptoms of avoidance and intrusion, two dimensions of post-traumatic stress (PTS) at 6 and 12 months post-injury. (2) To identify risk factors associated with these symptoms. RESEARCH DESIGN Prospective follow-up study. METHODS AND PROCEDURES Georgia and North Carolina Model Brain Injury Systems participants (n = 198) with mild (19%), moderate (21%) and severe (60%) TBI were interviewed by telephone at 6 and 12 months post-injury. The Impact of Event Scale (IES) was used to identify intrusion and avoidance symptoms. RESULTS Symptoms consistent with severe PTS increased from 11% at 6 months to 16% 12 months post-injury (p < 0.003). African-Americans (p < 0.01) and women (p < 0.05) reported greater symptomatology at 12 months compared to their counterparts. TBI severity and memory of the event were not associated with PTS-like symptoms. Symptoms increased over time when examined by race, injury intent, gender and age (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Regardless of severity, survivors with TBI are at risk for developing symptoms consistent with PTS. Amnesia for the injury event was not protective against developing these symptoms. African-Americans appear to be at greatest risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arlene I Greenspan
- National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has a discernible starting point and typical course, hence the particular appropriateness of longitudinal research in this disorder. This review outlines the salient findings of longitudinal studies published between 1988 and 2004. Studies have evaluated risk factors and risk indicators of PTSD, the disorder's trajectory, comorbid disorders and the predictive role of acute stress disorder. More recent studies used advanced data analytic methods to explore the sequence of causation that leads to chronic PTSD. Advantages and limitations of longitudinal methods are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tamar Peleg
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Traumatic Stress Studies, Hadassah University Hospital, Ein Kerem Campus, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Creamer M, O'Donnell ML, Pattison P. Amnesia, traumatic brain injury, and posttraumatic stress disorder: a methodological inquiry. Behav Res Ther 2006; 43:1383-9. [PMID: 16086988 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2004.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2004] [Revised: 11/08/2004] [Accepted: 11/15/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This study explored the relationship between mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI), amnesia, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). MTBI status and amnesia for the event were assessed in 307 consecutive admissions to a Level 1 Trauma Center. Amnesia did not always occur concurrently with MTBI: 18% of those with MTBI had full recall and over half had partial recall of the event. Just over 10% of participants developed PTSD by 12 months post-injury, with prevalence comparable across MTBI and non-MTBI groups. Non-significant differences in incidence of PTSD were apparent between those with full recall (9%), partial recall (14%) and no recall (7%). These data highlight the fact that PTSD may develop following trauma despite amnesia for the event, and illustrate the importance in both clinical and research settings of carefully examining the extent of amnesia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark Creamer
- Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health, ARMC Repat Campus, PO Box 5444, Heidelberg, Victoria 3081, Australia.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
McFarlane A, Clark CR, Bryant RA, Williams LM, Niaura R, Paul RH, Hitsman BL, Stroud L, Alexander DM, Gordon E. THE IMPACT OF EARLY LIFE STRESS ON PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL, PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIORAL MEASURES IN 740 NON-CLINICAL SUBJECTS. J Integr Neurosci 2005; 4:27-40. [PMID: 16035139 DOI: 10.1142/s0219635205000689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2005] [Revised: 02/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Early Life Stress (ELS) has been associated with a range of adverse outcomes in adults, including abnormalities in electrical brain activity [1], personality dimensions [40], increased vulnerability to substance abuse and depression [14]. The present study seeks to quantify these proposed effects in a large sample of non-clinical subjects. Data for the study was obtained from The Brain Resource International Database (six laboratories: two in USA, two in Europe, two in Australia). This study analyzed scalp electrophysiological data (EEG eyes open, closed and target auditory oddball data) and personality (NEO-FFI), history of addictive substance use and ELS) data that was acquired from 740 healthy volunteers. The ELS measures were collected via a self-report measure and covered a broad range of events from childhood sexual and physical abuse, to first-hand experience of traumatizing accidents and sustained domestic conflict [41]. Analysis of covariance, controlling for age and gender, compared EEG data from subjects exposed to ELS with those who were unexposed. ELS was associated with significantly decreased power across the EEG spectrum. The between group differences were strongest in the eyes closed paradigm, where subjects who experienced ELS showed significantly reduced beta (F1,405=12.37, p=.000), theta (F1,405=20.48, p=.000), alpha (F1,405=9.65, p=.002) and delta power (F1,450=36.22, p=.000). ELS exposed subjects also showed a significantly higher alpha peak frequency (F1,405=6.39, p=.012) in the eyes closed paradigm. Analysis of covariance on ERP components revealed that subjects who experienced ELS had significantly decreased N2 amplitude (F1,405=7.73, p=.006). Analyses of variance conducted on measures of personality revealed that subjects who experienced ELS had significantly higher levels of neuroticism (F1,264=13.39, p=.000) and openness (F1,264=17.11, p=.000), but lower levels of conscientiousness, than controls (F1,264=4.08, p=.044). The number of ELS events experienced was shown to be a significant predictor of scores on the DASS questionnaire [27], which rates subjects on symptoms of depression (F3,688=16.44, p=.000, R2=.07), anxiety (F3,688=14.32, p=.000, R2=.06) and stress (F3,688=20.02, p=.000, R2=.08). Each additional early life stressor was associated with an increase in these scores independent of age, gender and the type of stressor. Furthermore, the number of ELS experiences among smokers was also found to be a positive predictor of the nicotine dependency score (Faegstrom Test For Nicotine Dependence, [19]) (F3,104=10.99, p=.000, R2=.24), independent of age, gender and type of stressor. In conclusion, we highlight the impact of a history of ELS showed significant effects on brain function (EEG and ERP activity), personality dimensions and nicotine dependence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander McFarlane
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Adelaide, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville, SA 5011, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Hall JM. Dissociative experiences of women child abuse survivors: a selective constructivist review. TRAUMA, VIOLENCE & ABUSE 2003; 4:283-308. [PMID: 15006298 DOI: 10.1177/1524838003256559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
A selective literature review of dissociation in women abuse survivors was under-taken from a feminist, constructivist perspective. Dissociation has been conceptualized many ways historically. Current understandings of dissociative phenomena are diverse, as reflected in the research and treatment literature. Dissociation has been linked to physical and psychological problems, including major mental illnesses, pelvic pain, somatization disorders, and eating disorders. There has been a preoccupation with rare but fascinating extremes of dissociation, such as multiple personality disorder, with less emphasis on more frequently seen types of dissociation, such as depersonalization and derealization. Views of dissociation as it occurs in women child abuse survivors affect their autonomy and perceived credibility and determine treatment trajectories. Questions remain as to what aspects and types of dissociation are "pathological." There is evidence that dissociation may be a commonplace human experience in the general population. Implications for theory, research, and practice are included.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanne M Hall
- College of Nursing, University of Tennessee, TN, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
O'Donnell ML, Creamer M, Bryant RA, Schnyder U, Shalev A. Posttraumatic disorders following injury: an empirical and methodological review. Clin Psychol Rev 2003; 23:587-603. [PMID: 12788111 DOI: 10.1016/s0272-7358(03)00036-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Although there has been a marked increase in research on psychological disorders following physical injury in recent years, there are many discrepancies between the reported findings. This paper reviews the prevalence outcomes of recent studies of the mental health sequelae of physical injury with a focus on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress disorder (ASD), and depression. The review critically outlines some of the methodological factors that may have contributed to these discrepancies. The phenomenological overlap between organic and psychogenic symptoms, the use of narcotic analgesia, the role of brain injury, the timing and content of assessments, and litigation are discussed in terms of their potential to confound findings with this population. Recommendations are proposed to clarify methodological approaches in this area. It is suggested that a clearer understanding of the psychological effects of physical injury will require the widespread adoption of more rigorous, standardized and transparent methodological procedures.
Collapse
|
20
|
McMillan TM, Williams WH, Bryant R. Post-traumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injury: A review of causal mechanisms, assessment,and treatment. Neuropsychol Rehabil 2003; 13:149-64. [DOI: 10.1080/09602010244000453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
21
|
Litz BT, Gray MJ, Bryant RA, Adler AB. Early intervention for trauma: Current status and future directions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1093/clipsy.9.2.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
|
22
|
Abstract
The possibility that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop following traumatic brain injury (TBI) has been the subject of considerable debate. The traditional view has held that impaired consciousness that occurs with TBI precludes encoding of the traumatic experience, and this prevents subsequent reexperiencing symptoms. This paper critically reviews available, empirical studies on PTSD in TBI populations and suggests that these two conditions can co-exist. The various mechanisms that may mediate PTSD following TBI are discussed, and special attention is given to issues that recognize the distinctive features of PTSD following TBI. These processes include implicit processing, biologically mediated fear conditioning, and reconstruction of trauma memories. Finally implications for assessment, treatment, and forensic investigation of PTSD in TBI populations are, addressed. This review concludes that TBI populations provide a useful means by which the role of traumatic memories (and impaired memories) in posttraumatic adjustment can be studied.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R A Bryant
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|