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Devuyst O, Olinger E, Rampoldi L. Uromodulin: from physiology to rare and complex kidney disorders. Nat Rev Nephrol 2017; 13:525-544. [PMID: 28781372 DOI: 10.1038/nrneph.2017.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Uromodulin (also known as Tamm-Horsfall protein) is exclusively produced in the kidney and is the most abundant protein in normal urine. The function of uromodulin remains elusive, but the available data suggest that this protein might regulate salt transport, protect against urinary tract infection and kidney stones, and have roles in kidney injury and innate immunity. Interest in uromodulin was boosted by genetic studies that reported involvement of the UMOD gene, which encodes uromodulin, in a spectrum of rare and common kidney diseases. Rare mutations in UMOD cause autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease (ADTKD), which leads to chronic kidney disease (CKD). Moreover, genome-wide association studies have identified common variants in UMOD that are strongly associated with risk of CKD and also with hypertension and kidney stones in the general population. These findings have opened up a new field of kidney research. In this Review we summarize biochemical, physiological, genetic and pathological insights into the roles of uromodulin; the mechanisms by which UMOD mutations cause ADTKD, and the association of common UMOD variants with complex disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Devuyst
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Eric Olinger
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Luca Rampoldi
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Via Olgettina 58, 20132 Milan, Italy
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Padmanabhan S, Graham L, Ferreri NR, Graham D, McBride M, Dominiczak AF. Uromodulin, an Emerging Novel Pathway for Blood Pressure Regulation and Hypertension. Hypertension 2014; 64:918-23. [DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.114.03132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sandosh Padmanabhan
- From the BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (S.P., L.G., D.G., M.M., A.F.D.); and Department of Pharmacology, New York Medical College, Valhalla (N.R.F.)
| | - Lesley Graham
- From the BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (S.P., L.G., D.G., M.M., A.F.D.); and Department of Pharmacology, New York Medical College, Valhalla (N.R.F.)
| | - Nicholas R. Ferreri
- From the BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (S.P., L.G., D.G., M.M., A.F.D.); and Department of Pharmacology, New York Medical College, Valhalla (N.R.F.)
| | - Delyth Graham
- From the BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (S.P., L.G., D.G., M.M., A.F.D.); and Department of Pharmacology, New York Medical College, Valhalla (N.R.F.)
| | - Martin McBride
- From the BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (S.P., L.G., D.G., M.M., A.F.D.); and Department of Pharmacology, New York Medical College, Valhalla (N.R.F.)
| | - Anna F. Dominiczak
- From the BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (S.P., L.G., D.G., M.M., A.F.D.); and Department of Pharmacology, New York Medical College, Valhalla (N.R.F.)
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Stec DE, Drummond HA, Gousette MU, Storm MV, Abraham NG, Csongradi E. Expression of heme oxygenase-1 in thick ascending loop of henle attenuates angiotensin II-dependent hypertension. J Am Soc Nephrol 2012; 23:834-41. [PMID: 22323644 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2011050455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Kidney-specific induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) attenuates the development of angiotensin II (Ang II) -dependent hypertension, but the relative contribution of vascular versus tubular induction of HO-1 is unknown. To determine the specific contribution of thick ascending loop of Henle (TALH) -derived HO-1, we generated a transgenic mouse in which the uromodulin promoter controlled expression of human HO-1. Quantitative RT-PCR and confocal microscopy confirmed successful localization of the HO-1 transgene to TALH tubule segments. Medullary HO activity, but not cortical HO activity, was significantly higher in transgenic mice than control mice. Enhanced TALH HO-1 attenuated the hypertension induced by Ang II delivered by an osmotic minipump for 10 days (139 ± 3 versus 153 ±2 mmHg in the transgenic and control mice, respectively; P<0.05). The lower blood pressure in transgenic mice associated with a 60% decrease in medullary NKCC2 transporter expression determined by Western blot. Transgenic mice also exhibited a 36% decrease in ouabain-sensitive sodium reabsorption and a significantly attenuated response to furosemide in isolated TALH segments. In summary, these results show that increased levels of HO-1 in the TALH can lower blood pressure by a mechanism that may include alterations in NKCC2-dependent sodium reabsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Stec
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Excellence in Cardiovascular-Renal Research, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, 39216, USA.
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The possibilities of practical application of transgenic mammalian species generated by somatic cell cloning in pharmacology, veterinary medicine and xenotransplantology. Pol J Vet Sci 2011; 14:329-40. [DOI: 10.2478/v10181-011-0051-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Rubera I, Hummler E, Beermann F. Transgenic mice and their impact on kidney research. Pflugers Arch 2008; 458:211-22. [PMID: 19084992 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-008-0624-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2008] [Accepted: 11/25/2008] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The kidney is a key organ in the maintenance of ion and fluid homeostasis and specific transport systems localized along the nephron guarantee this function. Due to its large functional heterogeneity, experiments on the whole organ level cannot be easily performed, and thus more refined tools are needed, like for example the development of specific recombination systems to gain knowledge on the physiological role of single proteins implicated in ion transport. This review introduces the transgenic technology developed over the past decades, and then focuses on recent strategies for generating kidney-specific gene targeting, over-expression, and gene ablation in mice, that will help to understand the physiological role of proteins implicated in salt and water balance in the kidney.
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Abdullah M, Rahmah AU, Sinskey A, Rha C. Cell engineering and molecular pharming for biopharmaceuticals. THE OPEN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY JOURNAL 2008; 2:49-61. [PMID: 19662143 PMCID: PMC2709479 DOI: 10.2174/1874104500802010049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2008] [Revised: 04/20/2008] [Accepted: 04/21/2008] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Biopharmaceuticals are often produced by recombinant E. coli or mammalian cell lines. This is usually achieved by the introduction of a gene or cDNA coding for the protein of interest into a well-characterized strain of producer cells. Naturally, each recombinant production system has its own unique advantages and disadvantages. This paper examines the current practices, developments, and future trends in the production of biopharmaceuticals. Platform technologies for rapid screening and analyses of biosystems are reviewed. Strategies to improve productivity via metabolic and integrated engineering are also highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- M.A Abdullah
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Anisa ur Rahmah
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia
| | - A.J Sinskey
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - C.K Rha
- Biomaterials Science and Engineering Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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Melo EO, Canavessi AMO, Franco MM, Rumpf R. Animal transgenesis: state of the art and applications. J Appl Genet 2007; 48:47-61. [PMID: 17272861 DOI: 10.1007/bf03194657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
There is a constant expectation for fast improvement of livestock production and human health care products. The advent of DNA recombinant technology and the possibility of gene transfer between organisms of distinct species, or even distinct phylogenic kingdoms, has opened a wide range of possibilities. Nowadays we can produce human insulin in bacteria or human coagulation factors in cattle milk. The recent advances in gene transfer, animal cloning, and assisted reproductive techniques have partly fulfilled the expectation in the field of livestock transgenesis. This paper reviews the recent advances and applications of transgenesis in livestock and their derivative products. At first, the state of art and the techniques that enhance the efficiency of livestock transgenesis are presented. The consequent reduction in the cost and time necessary to reach a final product has enabled the multiplication of transgenic prototypes around the world. We also analyze here some emerging applications of livestock transgenesis in the field of pharmacology, meat and dairy industry, xenotransplantation, and human disease modeling. Finally, some bioethical and commercial concerns raised by the transgenesis applications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo O Melo
- EMBRAPA Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Av. W/5, Norte Final, PBI, Sala 7B, Brasilia, DF, Brazil, CEP 70770-900.
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Dunn DA, Pinkert CA, Kooyman DL. Foundation Review: Transgenic animals and their impact on the drug discovery industry. Drug Discov Today 2005; 10:757-67. [PMID: 15922934 DOI: 10.1016/s1359-6446(05)03452-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The ability to direct genetic changes at the molecular level has resulted in a revolution in biology. Nowhere has this been more apparent than in the production of transgenic animals. Transgenic technology lies at the junction of several enabling techniques in such diverse fields as embryology, cell biology and molecular genetics. A host of techniques have been used to effect change in gene expression and develop new pharmaceutical and nutraceutical compounds cost-effectively. Scientific advances gained by transgenic capabilities enable further understanding of basic biological pathways and yield insights into how changes in fundamental processes can perturb programmed development or culminate in disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Dunn
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Aging and Developmental Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
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Huang YJ, Chretien N, Bilodeau AS, Zhou JF, Lazaris A, Karatzas CN. Goat uromodulin promoter directs kidney-specific expression of GFP gene in transgenic mice. BMC Biotechnol 2005; 5:9. [PMID: 15823198 PMCID: PMC1090560 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6750-5-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2005] [Accepted: 04/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Uromodulin is the most abundant protein found in the urine of mammals. In an effort to utilize the uromodulin promoter in order to target recombinant proteins in the urine of transgenic animals we have cloned a goat uromodulin gene promoter fragment (GUM promoter) and used it to drive expression of GFP in the kidney of transgenic mice. RESULTS The GUM-GFP cassette was constructed and transgenic mice were generated in order to study the promoter's tissue specificity, the GFP kidney specific expression and its subcellular distribution. Tissues collected from three GUM-GFP transgenic mouse lines, and analyzed for the presence of GFP by Western blotting and fluorescence confirmed that the GUM promoter drove expression of GFP specifically in the kidney. More specifically, by using immuno-histochemistry analysis of kidney sections, we demonstrated that GFP expression was co-localized, with endogenous uromodulin protein, in the epithelial cells of the thick ascending limbs (TAL) of Henle's loop and the early distal convoluted tubule in the kidney. CONCLUSION The goat uromodulin promoter is capable of driving recombinant protein expression in the kidney of transgenic mice. The goat promoter fragment cloned may be a useful tool in targeting proteins or oncogenes in the kidney of mammals.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Biotechnology/methods
- Blotting, Southern
- Blotting, Western
- Cloning, Molecular
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental
- Genes, Reporter
- Genetic Techniques
- Goats
- Green Fluorescent Proteins/metabolism
- Immunohistochemistry
- In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence
- Kidney/embryology
- Kidney/metabolism
- Kidney Tubules/embryology
- Kidney Tubules/metabolism
- Loop of Henle/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Microscopy, Confocal
- Microscopy, Fluorescence
- Models, Genetic
- Mucoproteins/genetics
- Mucoproteins/metabolism
- Plasmids/metabolism
- Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Promoter Regions, Genetic
- Recombinant Proteins/chemistry
- Time Factors
- Tissue Distribution
- Transgenes
- Uromodulin
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue-Jin Huang
- PharmAthene Canada Inc. (formerly Nexia Biotechnologies Inc.), 1000 St-Charles Avenue Block B, Vaudreuil-Dorion, QC J7V 8P5, Canada
| | - Nathalie Chretien
- PharmAthene Canada Inc. (formerly Nexia Biotechnologies Inc.), 1000 St-Charles Avenue Block B, Vaudreuil-Dorion, QC J7V 8P5, Canada
| | - Annie S Bilodeau
- PharmAthene Canada Inc. (formerly Nexia Biotechnologies Inc.), 1000 St-Charles Avenue Block B, Vaudreuil-Dorion, QC J7V 8P5, Canada
| | - Jiang Feng Zhou
- PharmAthene Canada Inc. (formerly Nexia Biotechnologies Inc.), 1000 St-Charles Avenue Block B, Vaudreuil-Dorion, QC J7V 8P5, Canada
- Current address: Genomatix Corporation, 119 Norfolk Ave SW, Roanoke, VA 24011, USA
| | - Anthoula Lazaris
- PharmAthene Canada Inc. (formerly Nexia Biotechnologies Inc.), 1000 St-Charles Avenue Block B, Vaudreuil-Dorion, QC J7V 8P5, Canada
- Current address: Quebec Transgenic Research Network, McGill University, 1110 Ave Pine West, Montreal, QC H3A 1A3, Canada
| | - Costas N Karatzas
- PharmAthene Canada Inc. (formerly Nexia Biotechnologies Inc.), 1000 St-Charles Avenue Block B, Vaudreuil-Dorion, QC J7V 8P5, Canada
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Mikus T, Poplstein M, Sedláková J, Landa V, Jeníkova G, Trefil P, Lidický J, Malý P. Generation and phenotypic analysis of a transgenic line of rabbits secreting active recombinant human erythropoietin in the milk. Transgenic Res 2005; 13:487-98. [PMID: 15587272 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-004-9596-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Production of recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) for therapeutic purposes relies on its expression in selected clones of transfected mammalian cells. Alternatively, this glycoprotein can be produced by targeted secretion into the body fluid of transgenic mammals. Here, we report on the generation of a transgenic rabbits producing rhEPO in the lactating mammary gland. Transgenic individuals are viable, fertile and transmit the rhEPO gene to the offspring. Northern blot data indicated that the expression of the transgene in the mammary gland is controlled by whey acidic protien (WAP) regulatory sequences during the period of lactation. While the hybridization with total RNA revealed the expression only in the lactating mammary gland, the highly sensitive combinatory approach using RT-PCR/hybridization technique detected a minor ectopic expression. The level of rhEPO secretion in the founder female, measured in the period of lactation, varied in the range of 60-178 and 60-162 mIU/ml in the milk and blood plasma, respectively. Biological activity of the milk rhEPO was confirmed by a standard [3H]-thymidine incorporation test. Thus, we describe the model of a rhEPO-transgenic rabbit, valuable for studies of rhEPO glycosylation and function, which can be useful for the development of transgenic approaches designed for the preparation of recombinant proteins by alternative biopharmaceutical production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomás Mikus
- BIOPHARM Research Institute of Biopharmacy and Veterinary Drugs, a.s., Center for Molecular and Gene Biotechnology, Pohori-Chotoun, 254 49 Jílové u Prahy, Czech Republic
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Bianco RA, Keen HL, Lavoie JL, Sigmund CD. Untraditional methods for targeting the kidney in transgenic mice. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2003; 285:F1027-33. [PMID: 14600026 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00207.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
With the completion of the human genome project and the sequencing of many genomes of experimental models, there is a pressing need to determine the physiological relevance of newly identified genes. Gene-targeting approaches have become an important tool in our arsenal to dissect the significance of genes expressed in many tissues. A wealth of experimental models has been made to assess the role of gene expression in renal function and development. The development of new and informative models is presently limited by the anatomic complexity of the kidney and the lack of cell-specific promoters to target the numerous diverse cell types in that organ. Because of this, new approaches may have to be developed. In this review, we will discuss several untraditional methods to target gene expression to the kidney. These approaches should provide some additional tricks and tools to help in developing additional informative models for studying renal physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Bianco
- Dept. of Internal Medicine, 3181B Medical Education and Biomedical Research Facility, Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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Serafini-Cessi F, Malagolini N, Cavallone D. Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein: biology and clinical relevance. Am J Kidney Dis 2003; 42:658-76. [PMID: 14520616 DOI: 10.1016/s0272-6386(03)00829-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein (THP) is the most abundant urinary protein in mammals. Urinary excretion occurs by proteolytic cleavage of the large ectodomain of the glycosyl phosphatidylinositol-anchored counterpart exposed at the luminal cell surface of the thick ascending limb of Henle's loop. We describe the physical-chemical structure of human THP and its biosynthesis and interaction with other proteins and leukocytes. The clinical relevance of THP reported here includes: (1) involvement in the pathogenesis of cast nephropathy, urolithiasis, and tubulointerstitial nephritis; (2) abnormalities in urinary excretion in renal diseases; and (3) the recent finding that familial juvenile hyperuricemic nephropathy and autosomal dominant medullary cystic kidney disease 2 arise from mutations of the THP gene. We critically examine the literature on the physiological role and mechanism(s) that promote urinary excretion of THP. Some lines of research deal with the in vitro immunoregulatory activity of THP, termed uromodulin when isolated from urine of pregnant women. However, an immunoregulatory function in vivo has not yet been established. In the most recent literature, there is renewed interest in the capacity of urinary THP to compete efficiently with urothelial cell receptors, such as uroplakins, in adhering to type 1 fimbriated Escherichia coli. This property supports the notion that abundant THP excretion in urine is promoted in the host by selective pressure to obtain an efficient defense against urinary tract infections caused by uropathogenic bacteria.
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Dyck MK, Lacroix D, Pothier F, Sirard MA. Making recombinant proteins in animals--different systems, different applications. Trends Biotechnol 2003; 21:394-9. [PMID: 12948672 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-7799(03)00190-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Transgenic animal bioreactors represent a powerful tool to address the growing need for therapeutic recombinant proteins. The ability of transgenic animals to produce complex, biologically active recombinant proteins in an efficient and economic manner has stimulated a great deal of interest in this area. As a result, genetically modified animals of several species, expressing foreign proteins in various tissues, are currently being developed. However, the generation of transgenic animals is a cumbersome process and remains problematic in the application of this technology. The advantages and disadvantages of different transgenic systems in relation to other bioreactor systems are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael K Dyck
- Centre de Recherche en Biologie de la Reproduction, Dépt des Sciences Animals, Pavillon Paul Comtois, Cité Universitaire, Université Laval, Sainte-Foy, Québec, Canada, G1K 7P4
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Zhu X, Cheng J, Huang L, Gao J, Zhang ZT, Pak J, Wu XR. Renal tubule-specific expression and urinary secretion of human growth hormone: a kidney-based transgenic bioreactor growth. Transgenic Res 2003; 12:155-62. [PMID: 12739883 DOI: 10.1023/a:1022967505222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Tissue-specific expression of human genes and secretion of human proteins into the body fluids in transgenic animals provides an important means of manufacturing large-quantity and high-quality pharmaceuticals. The present study demonstrates using transgenic mice that a 3.0 kb promoter of the mouse Tamm-Horsfall protein (THP, or uromodulin) gene directs the specific expression of human growth hormone (hGH) gene in the kidney followed by the secretion of hGH protein into the urine. hGH expression was detected in renal tubules that actively produce the THP, that is, the ascending limb of Henle's loop and distal convoluted tubules. Up to 500 ng/ml of hGH was detected in the urine, and this level remained constant throughout the 10-month observation period. hGH was also detectable in the stomach epithelium and serum in two of the transgenic lines, suggesting position-dependent effects of the transgene and leakage of hGH from the site of synthesis into the bloodstream, respectively. These results indicate that the 3.0 kb mouse THP promoter is primarily kidney-specific and can be used to convert kidney into a bioreactor in transgenic animals to produce recombinant proteins. Given the capacity of urine production independent of age, sex and lactation, the ease of urinary protein purification, and the potentially distinct machinery for post-translational modifications in the kidney epithelial cells, the kidney-based transgenic bioreactor may offer unique opportunities for producing certain complex pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinhua Zhu
- Department of Urology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
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