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Cavdarli S, Delannoy P, Groux-Degroote S. O-acetylated Gangliosides as Targets for Cancer Immunotherapy. Cells 2020; 9:cells9030741. [PMID: 32192217 PMCID: PMC7140702 DOI: 10.3390/cells9030741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
O-acetylation of sialic acid residues is one of the main modifications of gangliosides, and modulates ganglioside functions. O-acetylation of gangliosides is dependent on sialyl-O-acetyltransferases and sialyl-O-acetyl-esterase activities. CAS1 Domain-Containing Protein 1 (CASD1) is the only human sialyl-O-acetyltransferases (SOAT) described until now. O-acetylated ganglioside species are mainly expressed during embryonic development and in the central nervous system in healthy adults, but are re-expressed during cancer development and are considered as markers of cancers of neuroectodermal origin. However, the specific biological roles of O-acetylated gangliosides in developing and malignant tissues have not been extensively studied, mostly because of the requirement of specific approaches and tools for sample preparation and analysis. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge of ganglioside biosynthesis and expression in normal and pathological conditions, of ganglioside O-acetylation analysis and expression in cancers, and of the possible use of O-acetylated gangliosides as targets for cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumeyye Cavdarli
- UMR 8576 - UGSF - Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, CNRS, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; (S.C.); (P.D.)
- OGD2 Pharma, Institut de Recherche en Santé de l’Université de Nantes, 44007 Nantes, France
| | - Philippe Delannoy
- UMR 8576 - UGSF - Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, CNRS, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; (S.C.); (P.D.)
- Institut pour la Recherche sur le Cancer de Lille – IRCL – Place de Verdun, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Sophie Groux-Degroote
- UMR 8576 - UGSF - Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, CNRS, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; (S.C.); (P.D.)
- Correspondence:
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Guan J, Qian J, Zhan C. Preparation of Cholera Toxin Subunit B Functionalized Nanoparticles for Targeted Therapy of Glioblastoma. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2059:207-212. [PMID: 31435923 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9798-5_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) is the nontoxic moiety of cholera toxin. It can target the glycosphingolipid GM1 expressed in the blood-brain barrier (BBB), neovasculature, and glioblastoma cells. Thus, CTB has been utilized as a multifunctional molecule for targeted therapy of glioblastoma. Here, we describe a detailed method for preparation of CTB functionalized paclitaxel (PTX)-loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles. This unique modification can guide nanoparticles across the BBB and target glioblastoma cells. The characterization of nanoparticles such as size, zeta potential, morphology, drug loading, and encapsulation efficiency is shown in this chapter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Guan
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Qian
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Changyou Zhan
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.
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Guan J, Zhang Z, Hu X, Yang Y, Chai Z, Liu X, Liu J, Gao B, Lu W, Qian J, Zhan C. Cholera Toxin Subunit B Enabled Multifunctional Glioma-Targeted Drug Delivery. Adv Healthc Mater 2017; 6. [PMID: 28841776 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201700709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Revised: 07/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Glioma is among the most formidable brain cancers due to location in the brain. Cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) is investigated to facilitate multifunctional glioma-targeted drug delivery by targeting the glycosphingolipid GM1 expressed in the blood-brain barrier (BBB), neovasulature, and glioma cells. When modified on the surface of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (CTB-NPs), CTB fully retains its bioactivity after 24 h incubation in the fresh mouse plasma. The formed protein corona (PC) of CTB-NP and plain PLGA nanoparticles (NP) after incubation in plasma is analyzed using liquid chromatography tandem massspectrometry (nano-LC-MS/MS). CTB modification does not alter the protein components of the formed PC, macrophage phagocytosis, or pharmacokinetic profiles. CTB-NP can efficiently penetrate the in vitro BBB model and target glioma cells and human umbilical vascular endothelial cells. Paclitaxel is loaded in NP (NP/PTX) and CTB-NP (CTB-NP/PTX), and their antiglioma effects are assessed in nude mice bearing intracranial glioma. CTB-NP/PTX can efficiently induce apoptosis of intracranial glioma cells and ablate neovasulature in vivo, resulting in significant prolongation of survival of nude mice bearing intracranial glioma (34 d) in comparison to those treated with NP/PTX (29 d), Taxol (24 d), and saline (21 d). The present study suggests a potential multifunctional glioma-targeted drug delivery system enabled by cholera toxin subunit B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Guan
- School of Basic Medical Sciences and State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers; Fudan University; Shanghai 200032 P. R. China
| | - Zui Zhang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences and State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers; Fudan University; Shanghai 200032 P. R. China
| | - Xuefeng Hu
- School of Pharmacy and; Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery (Ministry of Education); Fudan University; Shanghai 201203 P. R. China
| | - Yang Yang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences and State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers; Fudan University; Shanghai 200032 P. R. China
| | - Zhilan Chai
- School of Pharmacy and; Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery (Ministry of Education); Fudan University; Shanghai 201203 P. R. China
| | - Xiaoqin Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering; Chongqing Chemical Industry Vocational College; Chongqing 401220 China
| | - Jican Liu
- Department of Pharmacology; Affiliated Zhongshan Hospital Qingpu Branch; Fudan University; Shanghai 201700 P. R. China
| | - Bo Gao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences and State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers; Fudan University; Shanghai 200032 P. R. China
| | - Weiyue Lu
- School of Pharmacy and; Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery (Ministry of Education); Fudan University; Shanghai 201203 P. R. China
| | - Jun Qian
- School of Pharmacy and; Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery (Ministry of Education); Fudan University; Shanghai 201203 P. R. China
| | - Changyou Zhan
- School of Basic Medical Sciences and State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers; Fudan University; Shanghai 200032 P. R. China
- School of Pharmacy and; Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery (Ministry of Education); Fudan University; Shanghai 201203 P. R. China
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Groux-Degroote S, Guérardel Y, Delannoy P. Gangliosides: Structures, Biosynthesis, Analysis, and Roles in Cancer. Chembiochem 2017; 18:1146-1154. [PMID: 28295942 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Gangliosides are acidic glycosphingolipids containing one or more sialic acid residues. They are essential compounds at the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane, where they interact with phospholipids, cholesterol, and transmembrane proteins, forming lipid rafts. They are involved in cell adhesion, proliferation, and recognition processes, as well as in the modulation of signal transduction pathways. These functions are mainly governed by the glycan moiety, and changes in the structures of gangliosides occur under pathological conditions, particularly in neuro-ectoderm-derived cancers. With the progress in mass spectrometry analysis of gangliosides, their role in cancer progression can be now investigated in more detail. In this review we summarize the current knowledge on the biosynthesis of gangliosides and their role in cancers, together with the recent development of cancer immunotherapy targeting gangliosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Groux-Degroote
- Université de Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576, UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, 59000, Lille, France
| | - Yann Guérardel
- Université de Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576, UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, 59000, Lille, France
| | - Philippe Delannoy
- Université de Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576, UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, 59000, Lille, France
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Schiopu C, Vukelić Ž, Capitan F, Kalanj-Bognar S, Sisu E, Zamfir AD. Chip-nanoelectrospray quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry of meningioma gangliosides: A preliminary study. Electrophoresis 2012; 33:1778-86. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201200044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Željka Vukelić
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Faculty of Medicine; University of Zagreb; Croatia
| | | | - Svjetlana Kalanj-Bognar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Faculty of Medicine; University of Zagreb; Croatia
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Ikeda H, Shiku H. Antigen-receptor gene-modified T cells for treatment of glioma. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 746:202-15. [PMID: 22639170 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-3146-6_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Immunological effector cells and molecules have been shown to access intracranial tumor sites despite the existence of blood brain barrier (BBB) or immunosuppressive mechanisms associated with brain tumors. Recent progress in T-cell biology and tumor immunology made possible to develop strategies of tumor-associated antigen-specific immunotherapeutic approaches such as vaccination with defined antigens and adoptive T-cell therapy with antigen-specific T cells including gene-modified T cells for the treatment of patients with brain tumors. An array of recent reports on the trials of active and passive immunotherapy for patients with brain tumors have documented safety and some preliminary clinical efficacy, although the ultimate judgment for clinical benefits awaits rigorous evaluation in trials of later phases. Nevertheless, treatment with lymphocytes that are engineered to express tumor-specific receptor genes is a promising immunotherapy against glioma, based on the significant efficacy reported in the trials for patients with other types of malignancy. Overcoming the relative difficulty to apply immunotherapeutic approach to intracranial region, current advances in the understanding of human tumor immunology and the gene-therapy methodology will address the development of effective immunotherapy of brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Ikeda
- Department of Immuno-Gene Therapy, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan.
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Flangea C, Serb A, Sisu E, Zamfir AD. Reprint of: chip-based nanoelectrospray mass spectrometry of brain gangliosides. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2011; 1811:897-917. [PMID: 21958495 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2011.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2011] [Revised: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 06/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In the past few years, a considerable effort was invested in interfacing mass spectrometry (MS) to microfluidics-based systems for electrospray ionization (ESI). Since its first introduction in biological mass spectrometry, chip-based ESI demonstrated a high potential to discover novel structures of biomarker value. Therefore, recently, microfluidics for electrospray in conjunction with advanced MS instruments able to perform multistage fragmentation were introduced also in glycolipid research. This review is focused on the strategies, which allowed a successful application of chip technology for ganglioside mapping and sequencing by ESI MS and tandem MS (MS/MS). The first part of the review is dedicated to the progress of MS methods in brain ganglioside research, which culminated with the introduction of two types of microfluidic devices: the NanoMate robot and a polymer microchip for electrospray. In the second part a systematic description of most relevant results obtained by using MS in combination with the two chip systems is presented. Chip-based ESI accomplishments for determination of ganglioside expression and structure in normal brain regions and brain pathologies such as neurodegenerative diseases and primary brain tumors are described together with some considerations upon the perspectives of microfluidics-MS to be routinely introduced in biomedical investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corina Flangea
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad, Arad, Romania
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Chip-based nanoelectrospray mass spectrometry of brain gangliosides. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2011; 1811:513-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2011.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2011] [Revised: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 06/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Abstract
The development of effective immunotherapy strategies for glioma requires adequate understanding of the unique immunological microenvironment in the central nervous system (CNS) and CNS tumors. Although the CNS is often considered to be an immunologically privileged site and poses unique challenges for the delivery of effector cells and molecules, recent advances in technology and discoveries in CNS immunology suggest novel mechanisms that may significantly improve the efficacy of immunotherapy against gliomas. In this review, we first summarize recent advances in the CNS and CNS tumor immunology. We address factors that may promote immune escape of gliomas. We also review advances in passive and active immunotherapy strategies for glioma, with an emphasis on lessons learned from recent early-phase clinical trials. We also discuss novel immunotherapy strategies that have been recently tested in non-CNS tumors and show great potential for application to gliomas. Finally, we discuss how each of these promising strategies can be combined to achieve clinical benefit for patients with gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideho Okada
- Brain Tumor Program, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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Ehtesham M, Black KL, Yu JS. Recent progress in immunotherapy for malignant glioma: treatment strategies and results from clinical trials. Cancer Control 2007; 11:192-207. [PMID: 15153843 DOI: 10.1177/107327480401100307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite advances in surgical and adjuvant radiation therapy and chemotherapy strategies, malignant gliomas continue to be associated with poor prognoses. METHODS We review immune-mediated treatment approaches for malignant glioma and the relevance of recent clinical trials and their outcomes. We specifically address the increasing evidence implicating the role of cytotoxic T cells in ensuring adequate immune-mediated clearance of neoplastic cells and the need for the optimization of therapies that can elicit and support such antitumor T-cell activity. RESULTS The poor outcome of this disease has spurred the search for novel experimental therapies that can address and overcome the root biological phenomena associated with the lethality of this disease. The use of immunotherapy to bolster the otherwise impaired antitumor immune responses in glioma patients has received increasing attention. CONCLUSIONS An effective treatment paradigm for malignant gliomas may eventually require a multifaceted approach combining two or more different immunotherapeutic strategies. Such scenarios may involve the use of local cytokine gene therapy to enhance glioma-cell immunogenicity in conjunction with dendritic cell-based active vaccination to stimulate systemic tumoricidal T-cell immunity. Given the heterogeneity of this disease process and the potential risk of immunoediting out a selected, treatment-refractory tumor cell population, the concurrent use of multiple modalities that target disparate tumor characteristics may be of greatest therapeutic relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moneeb Ehtesham
- Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical, Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
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Gornati R, Chini V, Rimoldi S, Meregalli M, Schiaffino E, Bernardini G. Evaluation of SAT-1, SAT-2 and GalNAcT-1 mRNA in colon cancer by real-time PCR. Mol Cell Biochem 2007; 298:59-68. [PMID: 17119850 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-006-9350-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2006] [Accepted: 10/12/2006] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
By qualitative and quantitative PCR, we evaluated the expression of three messengers coding for SAT-1, SAT-2 and GalNAcT-1 in human samples of intestinal cancer and some cell lines (breast cancer and melanomas). Qualitative PCR demonstrated, in human tissues but not in the cell lines examined, the presence of an mRNA that lacks hexon 3; experiments performed on transfected SKMEL-28 excluded a regulative role of this noncanonical mRNA. Data from real-time PCR, statistically analysed by ANOVA indicated that the mRNA expression of all the considered glycosyltransferases (SAT-1, SAT-2 and GalNAcT-1) was significantly different in tumours versus their own control. The ganglioside patterns in the examined samples did not correlate with mRNA expression; this finding demonstrates that ganglioside expression is the result of a very complex balance between anabolic and catabolic enzyme activities. Although this study is still preliminary, it opens a new possibility for neoplastic prognosis finding potential molecular markers among the mRNAs that codify for glycosyltransferases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalba Gornati
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie e Scienze Molecolari, Università dell'Insubria, Via J.H. Dunant 3, 21100, Varese, Italy.
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Vukelić Z, Kalanj-Bognar S, Froesch M, Bîndila L, Radić B, Allen M, Peter-Katalinić J, Zamfir AD. Human gliosarcoma-associated ganglioside composition is complex and distinctive as evidenced by high-performance mass spectrometric determination and structural characterization. Glycobiology 2007; 17:504-15. [PMID: 17293353 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwm012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Gangliosides (GGs), involved in malignant alteration and tumor progression/invasiveness, are considered as tumor biomarkers or therapeutic targets. Here, we describe the first systematic GG composition characterization in human gliosarcoma versus normal brain tissue using our recently developed mass spectrometry (MS) methods, based on nano-electrospray (nano-ESI), Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR), and chip nano-ESI quadrupole time-of-flight (QTOF), complemented by thin-layer chromatographic (TLC) analysis and quantification. Combined MS enabled detection and structural assignment of 73 distinct GG species: many more than reported so far for investigated gliomas. Apart from the 7.4-times lower total GG content, gliosarcoma contained all major brain-associated species, however, in very altered proportions, exhibiting a highly distinctive pattern: GD3 (48.9%)>GD1a/nLD1>GD2/GT3>GM3>GT1b>GM2>GM1a/GM1b/nLM1>LM1>GD1b>GQ1b. MS also revealed abundant O-Ac-GD3; its sequencing provided structural evidence to postulate a novel O-Ac-GD3 isomer O-acetylated at the inner Neu5Ac-residue, previously not structurally confirmed. The high sensitivity and mass accuracy permitted the assignment of unusual minor species: GM4, Hex-HexNAc-nLM1, Gal-GD1, Fuc-GT1, GalNAc-GT1, O-Ac-GM3, di- O-Ac-GD3O-Ac-GD3, and O-Ac-GT3, not previously reported as glioma-associated. The gliosarcoma-expressed GA2 might represent a marker distinguishing astrocytic from oligodendroglial tumors. This is, to our knowledge, so far the most complete GG composition characterization of certain glioma, which demonstrates that our MS-based approach could provide essential structural information relevant to glycosphingolipid role(s) in brain tumor biology, differential diagnosis/prognosis and novel treatment concepts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeljka Vukelić
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zagreb, and Department of Neurology, Clinical Hospital Dubrava, Zagreb, Croatia
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Agius LM. Justification of glioma biology beyond a cellular basis of interpretation. Med Hypotheses 2003; 61:486-94. [PMID: 13679018 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-9877(03)00202-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Gliomas as neoplasms primarily arising from and constituted by glial cells would appear to implicate cell types that inherently reflect variation of aspects of a putative reparative process. The prominence of an astrocytic type cell of origin would further perhaps constitute a system of malignant transformation based on aberrant progression in cell proliferation and of cell pathology related to aspects on one hand of a gliosis and on the other of an autonomous process of progressiveness. In such terms, perhaps, one might consider the molecular aspects of gliomatous pathogenesis as simply a process of integral aberration of various aspects of astrocytic or glial cell responsiveness outside the normal confines of the normal reparative process and inherently beyond a strict cellular basis of interpretation in pathobiologic terms of such processes as anti-apoptosis and amplification of growth factor receptivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Agius
- St. Luke's Hospital, Gwardamangia, University of Malta, Malta.
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Dix AR, Brooks WH, Roszman TL, Morford LA. Immune defects observed in patients with primary malignant brain tumors. J Neuroimmunol 1999; 100:216-32. [PMID: 10695732 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(99)00203-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Malignant glioblastomas (gliomas) account for approximately one third of all diagnosed brain tumors. Yet, a decade of research has made little progress in advancing the treatment of these tumors. In part this lack of progress is linked to the challenge of discovering how glial tumors are capable of both modulating host immune function and neutralizing immune-based therapies. Patients with gliomas exhibit a broad suppression of cell-mediated immunity. The impaired cell-mediated immunity observed in patients with gliomas appears to result from immunosuppressive factor(s) secreted by the tumor. This article reviews what has been elucidated about the immune defects of patients harboring glioma and the glioma-derived factors which mediate this immunosuppression. A model involving systemic cytokine dysregulation is presented to suggest how the immune defects arise in these individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Dix
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington 40536-0084, USA
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