Folate and vitamin B-12 deficiencies additively impaired memory function and disturbed the gut microbiota in amyloid-β infused rats

Emerging paradigms in Alzheimer's therapy

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects elderly, and its incidence is continuously increasing across the globe. Unfortunately, despite decades of research, a complete cure for Alzheimer's disease continues to elude us. The current medications are mainly symptomatic and slow the disease progression but do not result in reversal of all disease pathologies. The growing body of knowledge on the factors responsible for the onset and progression of the disease has resulted in the identification of new targets that could be targeted for treatment of Alzheimer's disease. This has opened new vistas for treatment of Alzheimer's disease that have moved away from chemotherapeutic agents modulating a single target to biologics and combinations that acted on multiple targets thereby offering better therapeutic outcomes. This review discusses the emerging directions in therapeutic interventions against Alzheimer's disease highlighting their merits that promise to change the treatment paradigm and challenges that limit their clinical translation.

Homicide or Happiness: Did Folate Fortification and Public Health Campaigns Influence Homicide Rates and the Great American Crime Decline?

The last several years have witnessed a remarkable growth in research directed at nutrition and behavior, with increased interest in the field of nutritional criminology. It is becoming clear that dietary patterns and specific nutrients play an important role in cognition and behavior, including those related to aggression, violence, and antisocial activity. Included in this expanding knowledge base is the recognition that folate, through multiple pathways, including enzymatic reactions and gut microbiome ecology, plays a critical role in central nervous system functioning. These mechanistic advances allow for a retrospective analysis of a topic that remains unexplained-the sudden and unpredicted drop in homicide and other violent crime rates in the United States and other nations in the 1990s. Here, we revisit this marked reduction in homicide rates through the lens of the coincident public health campaign (and subsequent mandatory fortification) to increase folic acid intake. Based on objectively measured blood folate levels through the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, there is little doubt that tissue folate witnessed a dramatic rise at the national level from 1988 through 2000. Drawing from accumulated and emerging research on the neurobehavioral aspects of folate, it is our contention that this relatively sudden and massive increase in tissue folate levels may have contributed to reductions in violent crime in the United States.

Role of microbial dysbiosis in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia in the elderly and detected during the advanced stages where the chances of reversal are minimum. The gut-brain axis mediates a bidirectional communication between the gut and brain, which is dependent on bacterial products such as short chain fatty acids (SCFA) and neurotransmitters. Accumulating lines of evidence suggests that AD is associated with significant alteration in the composition of gut microbiota. Furthermore, transfer of gut microbiota from healthy individuals to patients can reshape the gut microbiota structure and thus holds the potential to be exploited for the treatment of various neurodegenerative disease. Moreover, AD-associated gut dysbiosis can be partially reversed by using probiotics, prebiotics, natural compounds and dietary modifications, but need further validations. Reversal of AD associated gut dysbiosis alleviate AD-associated pathological feature and therefore can be explored as a therapeutic approach in the future. The current review article will describe various studies suggesting that AD dysbiosis occurs with AD and highlights the causal role by focussing on the interventions that hold the potential to reverse the gut dysbiosis partially.

The Intestinal Microbiome in Dogs with Chronic Enteropathies and Cobalamin Deficiency or Normocobalaminemia-A Comparative Study

Cobalamin deficiency is a common sequela of chronic enteropathies (CE) in dogs. Studies comparing the intestinal microbiome of CE dogs with cobalamin deficiency to those that are normocobalaminemic are lacking. Therefore, our aim was to describe the fecal microbiome in a prospective, comparative study evaluating 29 dogs with CE and cobalamin deficiency, 18 dogs with CE and normocobalaminemia, and 10 healthy control dogs. Dogs with cobalamin deficiency were also analyzed after oral or parenteral cobalamin supplementation. Overall microbiome composition (beta diversity) at baseline was significantly different in CE dogs with cobalamin deficiency when compared to those with normocobalaminemia (p = 0.001, R = 0.257) and to healthy controls (p = 0.001, R = 0.363). Abundances of Firmicutes and Actinobacteria were significantly increased (q = 0.010 and 0.049), while those of Bacteroidetes and Fusobacteria were significantly decreased (q = 0.002 and 0.014) in CE dogs with cobalamin deficiency when compared to healthy controls. Overall microbiome composition in follow-up samples remained significantly different after 3 months in both dogs receiving parenteral (R = 0.420, p = 0.013) or oral cobalamin supplementation (R = 0.251, p = 0.007). Because cobalamin supplementation, in combination with appropriate therapy, failed to restore the microbiome composition in the dogs in our study, cobalamin is unlikely to be the cause of those microbiome changes but rather an indicator of differences in underlying pathophysiology that do not influence clinical severity but result in a significant aggravation of dysbiosis.

The microbiome as a major function of the gastrointestinal tract and its implication in micronutrient metabolism and chronic diseases

The composition and function of microbes harbored in the human gastrointestinal lumen have been underestimated for centuries because of the underdevelopment of nucleotide sequencing techniques and the lack of humanized gnotobiotic models. Now, we appreciate that the gut microbiome is an integral part of the human body and exerts considerable roles in host health and diseases. Dietary factors can induce changes in the microbial community composition, metabolism, and function, thereby altering the host immune response, and consequently, may influence disease risks. An imbalance of gut microbiome homeostasis (i.e., dysbiosis) has been linked to several chronic diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, obesity, and diabetes. Remarkable progress has recently been made in better understanding the extent to which the influence of the diet-microbiota interaction on host health outcomes in both animal models and human participants. However, the exact causality of the gut microbiome on the development of diseases is still controversial. In this review, we will briefly describe the general structure and function of the intestine and the process of nutrient absorption in humans. This is followed by a summarization of the recent updates on interactions between gut microbiota and individual micronutrients, including carotenoids, vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin C, folate, iron, and zinc. In the opinion of the authors, these nutrients were identified as representative of vitamins and minerals with sufficient research on their roles in the microbiome. The host responses to the gut microbiome will also be discussed. Future direction in microbiome research, for example, precision microbiome, will be proposed.

Revisiting the Role of Vitamins and Minerals in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia that affects millions of individuals worldwide. It is an irreversible neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized by memory loss, impaired learning and thinking, and difficulty in performing regular daily activities. Despite nearly two decades of collective efforts to develop novel medications that can prevent or halt the disease progression, we remain faced with only a few options with limited effectiveness. There has been a recent growth of interest in the role of nutrition in brain health as we begin to gain a better understanding of what and how nutrients affect hormonal and neural actions that not only can lead to typical cardiovascular or metabolic diseases but also an array of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Vitamins and minerals, also known as micronutrients, are elements that are indispensable for functions including nutrient metabolism, immune surveillance, cell development, neurotransmission, and antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this review, we provide an overview on some of the most common vitamins and minerals and discuss what current studies have revealed on the link between these essential micronutrients and cognitive performance or AD.

Intermediate role of gut microbiota in vitamin B nutrition and its influences on human health

Vitamin B consists of a group of water-soluble micronutrients that are mainly derived from the daily diet. They serve as cofactors, mediating multiple metabolic pathways in humans. As an integrated part of human health, gut microbiota could produce, consume, and even compete for vitamin B with the host. The interplay between gut microbiota and the host might be a crucial factor affecting the absorbing processes of vitamin B. On the other hand, vitamin B supplementation or deficiency might impact the growth of specific bacteria, resulting in changes in the composition and function of gut microbiota. Together, the interplay between vitamin B and gut microbiota might systemically contribute to human health. In this review, we summarized the interactions between vitamin B and gut microbiota and tried to reveal the underlying mechanism so that we can have a better understanding of its role in human health.

The impact of early-life environment on absence epilepsy and neuropsychiatric comorbidities

This review discusses the long-term effects of early-life environment on epileptogenesis, epilepsy, and neuropsychiatric comorbidities with an emphasis on the absence epilepsy. The WAG/Rij rat strain is a well-validated genetic model of absence epilepsy with mild depression-like (dysthymia) comorbidity. Although pathologic phenotype in WAG/Rij rats is genetically determined, convincing evidence presented in this review suggests that the absence epilepsy and depression-like comorbidity in WAG/Rij rats may be governed by early-life events, such as prenatal drug exposure, early-life stress, neonatal maternal separation, neonatal handling, maternal care, environmental enrichment, neonatal sensory impairments, neonatal tactile stimulation, and maternal diet. The data, as presented here, indicate that some early environmental events can promote and accelerate the development of absence seizures and their neuropsychiatric comorbidities, while others may exert anti-epileptogenic and disease-modifying effects. The early environment can lead to phenotypic alterations in offspring due to epigenetic modifications of gene expression, which may have maladaptive consequences or represent a therapeutic value. Targeting DNA methylation with a maternal methyl-enriched diet during the perinatal period appears to be a new preventive epigenetic anti-absence therapy. A number of caveats related to the maternal methyl-enriched diet and prospects for future research are discussed.

Dietary vitamin K is remodeled by gut microbiota and influences community composition

Vitamins have well-established roles in bacterial metabolism. Menaquinones (MKn, n = prenyl units in sidechain) are bacterially produced forms of vitamin K produced by the gut microbiota and consumed in the diet. Little is known about the influence of dietary vitamin K quinones on gut microbial composition and MKn production. Here, male and female C57BL6 mice were fed a vitamin K deficient diet or vitamin K sufficient diets containing phylloquinone (PK, plant-based vitamin K form), MK4, and/or MK9. DNA was extracted from cecal contents and 16S sequencing conducted to assess microbial composition. Cecal microbial community composition was significantly different in vitamin K deficient female mice compared to females on vitamin K sufficient diets (all p < .007). Parallel trends were seen in male mice, but were not statistically significant (all p > .05 but <0.1). Next, stable isotope-labeled vitamin K quinones were supplemented to male and female C57BL6 mice (²H₇PK, ¹³C₁₁MK4, ²H₇MK7, ²H₇MK9) and to an in vitro fermentation model inoculated with human stool (²H₇PK, ²H₇MK4, ²H₇MK9, or vitamin K precursor ²H₈-menadione). Vitamin K quinones in feces and culture aliquots were measured using LC-MS. In vivo, supplemented vitamin K quinones were remodeled to other MKn (²H₇- or ¹³C₆-labeled MK4, MK10, MK11, and MK12), but in vitro only the precursor ²H₈-menadione was remodeled to ²H₇MK4, ²H₇MK9, ²H₇MK10, and ²H₇MK11. These results suggest that dietary vitamin K deficiency alters the gut microbial community composition. Further studies are needed to determine if menadione generated by host metabolism may serve as an intermediate in dietary vitamin K remodeling in vivo.

Gram-negative bacteria and their lipopolysaccharides in Alzheimer's disease: pathologic roles and therapeutic implications

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most serious age-related neurodegenerative disease and causes destructive and irreversible cognitive decline. Failures in the development of therapeutics targeting amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau, principal proteins inducing pathology in AD, suggest a paradigm shift towards the development of new therapeutic targets. The gram-negative bacteria and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are attractive new targets for AD treatment. Surprisingly, an altered distribution of gram-negative bacteria and their LPS has been reported in AD patients. Moreover, gram-negative bacteria and their LPS have been shown to affect a variety of AD-related pathologies, such as Aβ homeostasis, tau pathology, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration. Moreover, therapeutic approaches targeting gram-negative bacteria or gram-negative bacterial molecules have significantly alleviated AD-related pathology and cognitive dysfunction. Despite multiple evidence showing that the gram-negative bacteria and their LPS play a crucial role in AD pathogenesis, the pathogenic mechanisms of gram-negative bacteria and their LPS have not been clarified. Here, we summarize the roles and pathomechanisms of gram-negative bacteria and LPS in AD. Furthermore, we discuss the possibility of using gram-negative bacteria and gram-negative bacterial molecules as novel therapeutic targets and new pathological characteristics for AD.

Effect of Saengshik Supplementation on the Gut Microbial Composition of Healthy Korean Adults: A Single-Group Pilot Study

Saengshik is a type of meal-replacement product or dietary supplement comprising an uncooked and dried plant-based food mixture with various health-promoting properties, such as antidiabetic, anti-dyslipidemic, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. Although these properties are considered attributable to the various bioactive components absorbed through the intestine and its remolding effect on intestinal microorganisms, the effect of Saengshik supplementation on gut microbiota profiles has not yet been studied. In this study, we investigated the effect of Saengshik administration on the composition of gut microbiota. This single-group design trial was conducted on 102 healthy men and women who received 40 g/day of Saengshik powder for 8 weeks, during which stool samples were collected at two fixed time points (baseline and the endpoint) for gut microbiota-profiling analysis. We observed a significant decrease in the α-diversity of gut microbiota after Saengshik consumption (P < 0.05), with significant changes identified in the composition of major microbial taxa, such as Bacteroidetes (P < 0.0001), Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Verrucomicrobia (P < 0.0001). Notably, the gut microbial response was related to the inter-individual variability of habitual dietary intake and enterotype at baseline. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study investigating the effects of Saengshik intake on changes in gut microbiota, with the results suggesting that individual habitual diet patterns and gut microbial shapes should be considered key aspects in Saengshik-mediated health-promotion effects.

Role of Maternal Microbiota and Nutrition in Early-Life Neurodevelopmental Disorders

The rise in the prevalence of obesity and other related metabolic diseases has been paralleled by an increase in the frequency of neurodevelopmental problems, which has raised the likelihood of a link between these two phenomena. In this scenario, maternal microbiota is a possible linking mechanistic pathway. According to the "Developmental Origins of Health and Disease" paradigm, environmental exposures (in utero and early life) can permanently alter the body's structure, physiology, and metabolism, increasing illness risk and/or speeding up disease progression in offspring, adults, and even generations. Nutritional exposure during early developmental stages may induce susceptibility to the later development of human diseases via interactions in the microbiome, including alterations in brain function and behavior of offspring, as explained by the gut-brain axis theory. This review provides an overview of the implications of maternal nutrition on neurodevelopmental disorders and the establishment and maturation of gut microbiota in the offspring.

Nicotinamide Ameliorates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Chronic Colitis in Mice through Its Anti-Inflammatory Properties and Modulates the Gut Microbiota

Vitamin B (nicotinamide (NAM)), one of the most important nutritional components for humans, exerts anti-inflammatory activity. This study was aimed at investigating the effect of NAM on the gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in mice with chronic colitis. Colitis was induced in C57BL/6 male mice by administration of 1.5% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS), and the mice were intraperitoneally injected with normal saline (NS) or NAM. NAM treatment ameliorated weight loss and changes in colon length, disease activity index (DAI) score, and histologic scores. Moreover, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis of LPL cells revealed that the level of interleukin- (IL-) 6, IL-12p70, IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) α, interferon- (IFN-) γ, IL-21, and IL-17A was increased, while IL-10 was reduced, in the chronic colitis group compared to the control group, but the levels of all these factors were restored after NAM treatment. Then, 16S rRNA sequencing of the large intestinal content was performed, and analysis of alpha diversity and beta diversity showed that the richness of the gut microbiota was decreased in the DSS group compared to the control group and restored after NAM treatment. In addition, NAM modulated specific bacteria, including Odoribacter, Flexispira, and Bifidobacterium, in the NAM+chronic colitis group. Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States (PICRUSt) analysis indicated that NAM treatment restored disruptions in the functions of the gut microbiota (replication and repair, cell motility) in mice with DSS-induced colitis. Furthermore, NAM also restored the reduction in valeric acid in mice with DSS-induced chronic colitis. Our results suggest that NAM treatment could alleviate DSS-induced chronic colitis in mice by inhibiting inflammation and regulating the composition and function of gut microbiota.

Nutritional Components in Western Diet Versus Mediterranean Diet at the Gut Microbiota-Immune System Interplay. Implications for Health and Disease

The most prevalent diseases of our time, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) (including obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and some types of cancer) are rising worldwide. All of them share the condition of an "inflammatory disorder", with impaired immune functions frequently caused or accompanied by alterations in gut microbiota. These multifactorial maladies also have in common malnutrition related to physiopathology. In this context, diet is the greatest modulator of immune system-microbiota crosstalk, and much interest, and new challenges, are arising in the area of precision nutrition as a way towards treatment and prevention. It is a fact that the westernized diet (WD) is partly responsible for the increased prevalence of NCDs, negatively affecting both gut microbiota and the immune system. Conversely, other nutritional approaches, such as Mediterranean diet (MD), positively influence immune system and gut microbiota, and is proposed not only as a potential tool in the clinical management of different disease conditions, but also for prevention and health promotion globally. Thus, the purpose of this review is to determine the regulatory role of nutritional components of WD and MD in the gut microbiota and immune system interplay, in order to understand, and create awareness of, the influence of diet over both key components.

Crosstalk between Gut and Brain in Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Gut Microbiota Modulation Strategies

The gut microbiota (GM) represents a diverse and dynamic population of microorganisms and about 100 trillion symbiotic microbial cells that dwell in the gastrointestinal tract. Studies suggest that the GM can influence the health of the host, and several factors can modify the GM composition, such as diet, drug intake, lifestyle, and geographical locations. Gut dysbiosis can affect brain immune homeostasis through the microbiota-gut-brain axis and can play a key role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, including dementia and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The relationship between gut dysbiosis and AD is still elusive, but emerging evidence suggests that it can enhance the secretion of lipopolysaccharides and amyloids that may disturb intestinal permeability and the blood-brain barrier. In addition, it can promote the hallmarks of AD, such as oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, amyloid-beta formation, insulin resistance, and ultimately the causation of neural death. Poor dietary habits and aging, along with inflammatory responses due to dysbiosis, may contribute to the pathogenesis of AD. Thus, GM modulation through diet, probiotics, or fecal microbiota transplantation could represent potential therapeutics in AD. In this review, we discuss the role of GM dysbiosis in AD and potential therapeutic strategies to modulate GM in AD.

Yeast β-glucan alleviates cognitive deficit by regulating gut microbiota and metabolites in Aβ1-42-induced AD-like mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that remarkably imposes a huge global public health burden. Yeast β-glucans have been incorporated in functional foods and used in prophylactic applications owing to their biological effects. However, few studies had investigated the effects of yeast β-glucans on neurodegenerative diseases. Here, gut microbiota and metabolites SCFAs were analyzed through high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing and GC-MS, respectively. Results indicated that yeast β-glucans could prominently shape the intestinal flora and produce SCFAs. Aβ_1-42-induced AD mice treated with small-molecular yeast β-glucan (S-β-Glu) or macro-molecular yeast β-glucan (M-β-Glu) exhibited evident alterations of the composition of the gut microbiota, especially in some beneficial bacteria and inflammatory-related bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Desulfovibrio, Oscillibacter, Mucispirillum, Alistipes, Anaerotruncus, and Rikenella. M-β-Glu regulated gut microbiota act as prebiotics better than S-β-Glu. Correlation analysis demonstrated the key microbiota closely associated with AD-related pathologies and cognition. Moreover, M-β-Glu and S-β-Glu ameliorated neuroinflammation and brain insulin resistance (IR), which played a central role in the process of AD pathology. This study broadened the underlying applications of yeast β-glucans as a novel dietary supplementation to prevent early-stage pathologies associated with AD by regulating gut microbiota and the potential mechanism might be ameliorating brain IR.

The role of maternal diet on offspring gut microbiota development: A review

In offspring, an adequate maternal diet is important for neurodevelopment. One mechanism by which maternal diet impacts neurodevelopment is through its dynamic role in the development of the gut microbiota. Communication between the gut, and its associated microbiota, and the brain is facilitated by the vagus nerve, in addition to other routes. Currently, the mechanisms through which maternal diet impacts offspring microbiota development are not well-defined. Therefore, this review aims to investigate the relationship between maternal diet during pregnancy and offspring microbiota development and its impact on neurodevelopment. Both human and animal model studies were reviewed to understand the impact of maternal diet on offspring microbiota development and potential consequences on neurodevelopment. In the period after birth, as reported in both human and model system studies, maternal diet impacts offspring bacterial colonization (e.g., decreased presence of Lactobacillus reuteri as a result of a high-fat maternal diet). It remains unknown whether these changes persist into adulthood and whether they impact vulnerability to disease. Therefore, further long-term studies are required in both human and model systems to study these changes. Our survey of the literature indicates that maternal diet influences early postnatal microbiota development, which in turn, may serve as a mechanism through which maternal diet impacts neurodevelopment.