Inferior Vena Cava Filters: Adherence to Clinical Practice Guidelines Recommendations, Retrieval Rates, and Filter Complications in a Tertiary Hospital

The present study evaluated the adherence to guideline recommendations regarding the indication for inferior vena cava filter (IVCF) placement, retrieval rates, complications, thrombotic recurrences, and mortality. Patients in whom an IVCF was placed between 2015 and 2020 in a tertiary hospital were retrospectively included. We considered absolute indication of IVCF placement if all the guidelines evaluated agreed on the indication, relative indication if only some guidelines recommended it and without indication if none of the evaluated guidelines recommended it. From the 185 patients included; 47% had an absolute indication, 15% a relative indication, and 38% had no indication. Filter-associated complications and non-removal rates were 12.4% and 41%, respectively. Venous thromboembolism recurrence rate was 17.8%, being filter-associated complications (24.2 vs 9.8%, P = .02) and thrombosis of the inferior cava or iliac veins (12.1 vs 2.6%, P = .03) more frequent in this group. The mortality rate was 40%, with higher mortality risk in patients with co-existing cancer. Previous major bleeding, filter-associated complications, and mortality were associated with a major risk of non-removal. In conclusion, the adherence to guidelines regarding the indication of IVCF placement is still low and IVCF complications are not negligible. This fact is of special concern in the elderly, comorbid, and cancer patients.

Evolving Landscape of Inferior Vena Cava Filter Utilization: A Comprehensive Bibliometric Analysis

This bibliometric analysis scrutinizes the evolution and current challenges in the use of Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) filters, focusing on trends from 2004 to 2023. Analyzing 2470 records, we report the United States' dominant role, with over half of the studies, and a significant shift towards retrievable filters. Despite technological advancements, controversies persist regarding efficacy, safety, and retrieval issues. Our findings point to the need for refined clinical guidelines and enhanced management strategies to navigate the complex landscape of IVC filter utilization effectively.

Case Report: Endoluminal removal of a conical retrievable superior vena cava filter with a retraction hook attached to the wall

We report the case of a 22-year-old male who underwent endoluminal surgery and was implanted an Option Elite filter in the superior vena cava (SVC) while the filter retraction hook was attached to the vessel wall. The patient requested to remove the filter after 155 days. Preoperative ultrasonography and CT examination revealed that the filter retraction hook was very likely to penetrate the SVC wall and its tip was very close to the right pulmonary artery. The SVC was not obstructed, and no thrombus was observed in either upper limb. After the filter retrieval device (ZYLOX, China) failed to capture the filter hook, we introduced a pigtail catheter with its tip partly removed and a loach guidewire, used a modified loop-snare technique to cut the proliferative tissues and free the hook, and finally removed the filter successfully by direct suspension of the guidewire. During this procedure, the patient experienced discomfort, such as chest pain and palpitations, but these symptoms disappeared when procedure completed. Repeated multiangle angiography revealed no contrast medium extravasation, no complications such as pericardial tamponade, pleural effusion, SVC haematoma formation, right pulmonary artery dissecting aneurysm, or intramural haematoma. We initially presented the modified loop-snare technique used to remove a conical superior vena cava filter (SVCF), so this method can be considered a practical and novel auxiliary technique for successful filter retrieval.

Comparison of inferior vena cava filter use and outcomes between cancer and non-cancer patients in a tertiary hospital

BACKGROUND

While accepted indications for the use of inferior vena cava filter (IVCF) in patients with a venous thromboembolism (VTE) have remained stable, their use continues to be frequent. Retrieval rates are still low, being particularly notable in the population with cancer. This study aims to review the rate of adherence to guidelines recommendation and to compare retrieval rates and complications in both cancer and non-cancer patients.

METHODS

A retrospective study was performed including 185 patients in whom an IVCF was placed in Hospital Clinic of Barcelona. Baseline characteristics, clinical outcomes, and IVCF-related outcomes were analyzed. A strongly recommended indication (SRI) was considered if it was included in all the revised clinical guidelines and non-strongly if it was included in only some.

RESULTS

Overall, 47 % of the patients had a SRI, without differences between groups. IVCF placement after 29 days from the VTE event was more frequent in the cancer group (46.1 vs. 17.7 %). Patients with cancer (48.1 % of the cohort) were older, with higher co-morbidity and bleeding risk. Anticoagulation resumption (75.3 % vs. 92.7 %) and IVCF retrieval (50.6 % vs. 66.7 %) were significantly less frequent in cancer patients. No significant differences were found regarding IVCF-related complications, hemorrhagic events and VTE recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

SRI of IVCF placement was found in less than half of the patients. Cancer patients had higher rates of IVCF placement without indication and lower anticoagulation resumption and IVCF retrieval ratios, despite complications were similar in both groups.

Successful retrieval of tip-embedded inferior vena cava filter using a modified forceps technique: case report

BACKGROUND

The retrieval of inferior vena cava (IVC) filter is essential for preventing complications associated with the device. Advanced techniques have been developed to improve the success rate of retrieving tip-embedded filters. The forceps technique is frequently used to address this issue.

CASE PRESENTATION

We present a case study of two patients who underwent a successful tip-embedded IVC filter retrieval using a modified forceps technique, which has not been previously reported. This technique involves using a wire loop under the filter tip and a forceps to grasp the filter shoulder. By pulling the wire loop and pushing the forceps in counterforce, the filter tip is straightened and aligned with the vascular sheath. The vascular sheath can then dissect the filter tip out from the caval wall and get inside the sheath to complete the retrieval.

CONCLUSIONS

The modified forceps technique we present here offers a new solution for the complex retrieval of IVC filters.

Utilization Practices of Inferior Vena Cava Filters at an Academic Medical Center

INTRODUCTION

 Anticoagulation is the mainstay of management for patients with venous thromboembolism (VTE), which includes deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). Inferior vena cava (IVC) filters are indicated in select patients who are not candidates for anticoagulation. There is a lack of quality evidence supporting other indications. In addition, long-term benefits and safety profiles of IVC filters have not been established. We investigated the utilization practice of IVC filters in a contemporary series of patients in a tertiary academic medical center.

METHODOLOGY

 A retrospective review of 200 patients who received IVC filters at Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) Medical Center in the years 2017 and 2018 was conducted. Adult patients 18 years of age or older with or without cancer were included, and patients were selected consecutively until data on 200 patients were collected. Data on patient demographics, an indication of IVC filter placement, filter retrieval rate, and re-thrombosis events over a median follow-up period of nine months were extracted from the electronic medical record and analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 200 patients (105 male and 95 female) were included with a median age of 61 years (range 17-92 years). Of the 200 patients, 97 (48.5%) had a DVT, 28 (14%) had a PE, 73 (36.5%) had both a PE and DVT, and 2 (1%) had thrombosis at other sites. A total of 130 (65%) patients had an IVC filter placed because of a contraindication to anticoagulation, while 70 (35%) had an IVC filter placed for other nonstandard indications, which included new or worsening VTE despite anticoagulation, recent VTE who must have anticoagulation held during surgery, primary prevention in high-risk patients, and extensive disease burden among other reasons. Seventy-two (36%) patients had active malignancy at the time of filter placement, and 64 (32%) were lost to follow-up. Of the 119 patients who were potentially eligible for filter retrieval, 55 (46%) patients had their IVC filters removed at a median of five months after insertion. Of the 55 patients who had IVC filters removed, 8 (14.5%) patients experienced a re-thrombosis event within a median follow-up of 39 months. Of the 145 patients who still had their filter in place at the time of death or last follow-up, 5 (3.4%) patients experienced a re-thrombosis event within a median follow-up of three months.

CONCLUSIONS

 One-third of the patients in this series had an IVC filter placed without a standard indication, and less than half of them had the IVC filters removed within one year of placement. Additionally, one-third of the patients were lost to follow-up, highlighting the need for improved structured follow-up programs and education among both patients and providers regarding the indications for placement and retrieval to minimize complications.

Comparison of success and cost after retrieval of two inferior vena cava filters

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to help guide inferior vena cava (IVC) filter choices by better understanding the retrieval characteristics, complications, and total costs between two commonly used IVC filters.

METHODS

All patients who underwent retrieval or attempted retrieval of Denali (Bard Peripheral Vascular) or Option (Argon Medical Devices) IVC filters were identified between March 2016 and October 2021 at a single tertiary care center. Those with imaging studies that permitted evaluation of filter placement, presence or degree of tilt, and/or hooking of the filter into the IVC wall were included in the present study. Filter retrieval success, number of attempts, use of advanced techniques, and fluoroscopy and procedural times were recorded and compared between the two filters.

RESULTS

A total of 87 patients presented for retrieval of 52 Denali and 35 Option Elite filters during the study period. Denali filters were more likely to be successfully retrieved at the first attempt (94% vs 77%; P = .019). The procedural and fluoroscopy times were shorter for Denali filters (29 minutes vs 63 minutes [P < .001] and 7 minutes vs 25 minutes [P < .001], respectively). Denali filters were less likely to be significantly tilted (≥15○) at retrieval (12% vs 29%; P < .001) or to have the filter hook embedded in the IVC wall (6% vs 40%; P < .001). Tilting of the filter of ≥15○ had no significant effects on the retrieval success rate (no tilt or tilt <15○ vs tilt of ≥15○: 98% vs 100%; P = .58). In contrast, filter hook penetration into the IVC wall significantly reduced successful recovery (41% vs 99%; P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings from this study suggest that although the filter designs are similar, a benefit exists in the ease of retrievability of the Denali over the Option filter. We found that tilting and hooking of the filter in the IVC wall occurred significantly more with the Option filter. These factors likely made retrieval more difficult and contributed to the longer procedure and fluoroscopy times.

Application of the Double Series Filter Technique for the Treatment of Acute Inferior Vena Cava Filter-Mediated Thrombosis

BACKGROUND

In this study, we examined the safety and effectiveness of removing inferior vena cava (IVC) filters with residual acute thrombosis after endovascular therapy.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of 712 patients who underwent retrievable IVC filter implantation between July 2018 and December 2022 was conducted. Residual thrombosis with the IVC filter occurred in 18 patients, and the volume of residual acute thrombosis in the IVC filter exceeded 1 mL in all cases. Angiography was performed to evaluate the size of the residual thrombosis and its position with respect to the filter. The double series filter technique (first filter, infrarenal IVC filter; second filter, suprarenal IVC filter) was used to remove the filter and thrombosis. We summarize the diagnosis, treatment, and surgical experience of these patients.

RESULTS

In this study, 16 of 18 patients (88.9%) demonstrated residual thrombosis in the IVC filter. One patient (5.6%) demonstrated thrombosis located both inside and floating above the filter, and one patient (5.6%) demonstrated thrombosis located both inside and underneath the filter. The technical success rate of double series IVC filter retrieval was 100%. Seventeen patients (94.4%) underwent single-stage suprarenal IVC filter retrieval, and one patient (5.6%, 1/18) underwent two-stage retrieval. In terms of residual thrombosis removal, 14 patients (77.7%) achieved complete removal and 4 patients (22.3%) achieved partial removal. Residual thrombosis could not be removed through the sheath in one patient, so femoral vein thrombectomy was performed. No other procedure-related complications were observed. The median follow-up time was 22.5 ± 6.8 months. No recurrence of thrombus symptoms was reported, and B ultrasound and computed tomography demonstrated smooth blood flow in the IVC, renal veins, and pulmonary artery.

CONCLUSIONS

For patients with residual acute thrombosis on the IVC filter and in whom there was absence of a more appropriate treatment after percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy or catheter-directed thrombolysis therapy, the double series IVC filter technique was a safe approach to improve the IVC filter retrieval rate in the early stage, as well as for simultaneous residual thrombus removal.

Extensive Iliocaval Deep Vein Thrombosis Provoked by Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the Setting of an Inferior Vena Cava Filter

Thrombotic events are well-known complications of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Inferior vena cava filters (IVCF) are devices used to prevent pulmonary embolism (PE) and also increase the risk of thrombotic complications. Here, we describe the case of a 38-year-old female with extensive bilateral lower extremity deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and thrombosis of the infrarenal inferior vena cava (IVC) in the setting of an IVCF and symptomatic COVID-19. The IVCF had been placed a few months prior for a left femoral DVT and PE after spinal surgery. This patient was treated with pharmacomechanical thrombectomy and ultrasound-assisted thrombolysis followed by angioplasty and anticoagulation. The IVCF was retrieved after confirming there was no residual DVT when the patient recovered from COVID-19 infection. This case of a rare combination of IVCF-related thrombosis secondary to COVID-19 highlights the potential pitfalls of IVCF in this situation.

Laser-assisted permanent greenfield filter removal with ileocaval stent reconstruction following filter thrombosis, a case report

Emerging literature supports removal of chronic indwelling IVC filters when they are contributing to complications for a patient and are no longer indicated. We present an interesting case of an elderly patient who had a history of DVT and underwent spinal surgery, which required cessation of his anticoagulation and placement of an IVC filter pre-operatively. Approximately 15 years later the patient presented to our institution with chronic occlusion of his IVC at the level of his filter which had never been removed, with bilateral lower extremity DVT and symptoms of phlegmasia cerulea dolens. Despite a previous unsuccessful attempt at DVT thrombectomy at an outside institution, interventional radiology was consulted, and he subsequently underwent successful laser sheath assisted removal of his 15-year-old permanent Greenfield filter with bilateral lower extremity DVT thrombectomy and venous stenting with significant improvement in his presenting symptoms. Clinical presentation, diagnostic workup, case findings, and outcomes are described.

Predictors of endobronchial forceps utilization for inferior vena cava filter retrieval: when snare retrieval fails

BACKGROUND

Endobronchial forceps are commonly used for complex IVC filter removal and after initial attempts at IVC filter retrieval with a snare have failed. Currently, there are no clear guidelines to help distinguish cases where primary removal should be attempted with standard snare technique or whether attempts at removal should directly be started with forceps. This study is aimed to identify clinical and imaging predictors of snare failure which necessitate conversion to endobronchial forceps.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of 543 patients who underwent IVC filter retrievals were performed at three large quaternary care centers from Jan 2015 to Jan 2022. Patient demographics and IVC filter characteristics on cross-sectional images (degree of tilt, hook embedment, and strut penetration, etc.) were reviewed. Binary multivariate logistic regression was used to identify predictors of IVC filter retrieval where snare retrieval would fail.

RESULTS

Thirty seven percent of the patients (n = 203) necessitated utilization of endobronchial forceps. IVC filter hook embedment (OR:4.55; 95%CI: 1.74-11.87; p = 0.002) and strut penetration (OR: 56.46; 95% CI 20.2-157.7; p = 0.001) were predictors of snare failure. In contrast, total dwell time, BMI, and degree of filter tilt were not associated with snare failure. Intraprocedural conversion from snare to endobronchial forceps was significantly associated with increased contrast volume, radiation dose, and total procedure times (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

IVC filter hook embedment and strut penetration were predictors of snare retrieval failure. Intraprocedural conversion from snare to endobronchial forceps increased contrast volume, radiation dose, and total procedure time. When either hook embedment or strut penetration is present on pre-procedural cross-sectional images, IVC filter retrieval should be initiated using endobronchial forceps.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 3, large multicenter retrospective cohort.

Effect of inferior vena cava filter placement position on device complications

BACKGROUND

Indwelling inferior vena cava (IVC) filters can cause complications, including penetration into surrounding structures, migration, and thrombosis of the vena cava. Computational fluid dynamics suggests juxtarenal placement of IVC filters decreases the risk of thrombosis; however, this has not been explored clinically. The present study examines the effect of filter placement position on long-term device complications with an emphasis on IVC thrombosis. We hypothesized that IVC filters placed further caudal to the renal veins were more likely to develop long-term thrombosis.

METHODS

A retrospective review of the medical records of patients receiving IVC filters at a single tertiary center between 2008 and 2016 was performed. Patients missing follow-up or procedural imaging data were excluded. The placement procedure venograms were reviewed, and the distance from the filter apex to the more inferior renal vein was measured using reported IVC filter lengths for calibration. The patients were divided into three groups according to the tip position relative to the more inferior renal vein: at or superior (group A), 1 to 20 mm inferior (group B), and >20 mm inferior (group C). The patient and procedural characteristics and outcomes were compared between the three groups. The primary end points were IVC thrombosis and device-related mortality.

RESULTS

Of 1497 eligible patients, 267 (17.8%) were excluded. The most common placement position was group B (64.0%). The mean age was lowest in group C, followed by groups A and B (age, 59.5 years, 64.6 years, and 62.2 years, respectively; P = .003). No statistically significant differences were found in the distribution of sex or the measured comorbidities. Group C was the most likely to receive jugular access (group C, 71.7%; group A, 48.3%; group B, 62.4%; P < .001) and received more first-generation filters (group C, 58.5%; group A, 46.6%; group B, 52.5%; P = .045). The short-term (<30-day) and long-term (≥30-day) outcomes, including access site hematoma, deep vein thrombosis, and pulmonary embolism, were uncommon, with no differences between the groups. Cases of symptomatic filter penetration, migration, and fracture were rare (one, one, and three cases, respectively). Although a pattern of increasing thrombosis with more inferior placement was found, the difference between groups was not statistically significant (group A, 1.5%; group B, 1.8%; group C, 2.5%; P = .638). No cases of device-related mortality occurred. All-cause mortality after a mean follow-up of 2.6 ± 2.3 years was 41.3% and did not vary significantly between the groups (P = .051). Multivariate logistic regression revealed that placement position did not predict for short- or long-term deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, IVC thrombosis, or all-cause mortality after adjustment for the baseline patient characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS

IVC filters have low rates of short- and long-term complications, including IVC thrombosis. The placement position did not affect the occurrence of device complications in this study.

Removing infrarenal inferior vena cava filters (IVCFs) with thrombus under protection of suprarenal IVCFs: A retrospective study in a single-center institution

To determine feasibility of removing inferior vena cava filters (IVCFs) with massive thrombus (>1*1cm) under protection of suprarenal IVCFs, and evaluate the filter thrombus detachment due to removal. The patients who had massive infrarenal IVCFs thrombus and received retrieval under protection of suprarenal IVCFs were retrospectively reviewed from July 2018 to December 2021. Medical data of them including demographics, filter types, dwell time, management, thrombus detachment was collected, and analyzed. There were 33 patients having massive infrarenal IVCFs thrombus and receiving retrieval under protection of suprarenal IVCFs including 23 males and 10 females with a mean age of 55.30 ± 11.97 (range, 30-85 years). All Infrarenal IVCFs were removed successfully and 29 cases (87.88%) were confirmed detachment of thrombus by cavography including 7 small-size thrombus (<1*1cm) and 22 large-size thrombus (>1*1cm). Twenty-two suprarenal IVCFs trapped large-size thrombus were treated with additional anticoagulation and 21 of them had successful retrievals with additional anticoagulation period of 66.18 ± 43.38 days (range, 9-154 days). The large-size IVCFs thrombus may be break off during retrieval, and IVCFs with large-size thrombus could be removed safely with suprarenal IVCFs protection. The thrombus trapped in filters could be reduced with an additional period of anticoagulation.

The use of pre-operative Inferior Vena Cava filters for thromboprophylaxis in ultra-high-risk patients undergoing total hip and knee arthroplasty: a systematic review and narrative analysis

PURPOSE

Patients undergoing total hip (THA) or knee (TKA) arthroplasty are at high risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE). As the number performed annually increases, the population at risk of fatal pulmonary embolism (PE) also grows. Ultra-high-risk arthroplasty patients (UHRAPs) include those with additional comorbidities, or a history of VTE, for many of whom routine prophylaxis will previously have failed. Pre-operative insertion of Inferior Vena Cava filters (IVCFs) has been recommended for thromboprophylaxis in UHRAPs, and this review was performed to establish their results.

METHODS

A systematic search of MEDLINE and Embase databases was performed for studies reporting the use of Inferior Vena Cava filters in hip and knee arthroplasty patients.

RESULTS

Ten studies met the inclusion criteria, containing 718 IVCFs in Orthopaedic patients, 343 of which were permanent (47.8%), 369 potentially retrievable (51.4%), 5 absorbable (0.6%) and one of unknown design (0.1%). Patient age averaged 64.7yrs (17-95) and 56% were female. Pre-operatively, 415 prophylactic IVCFs were inserted in 409 UHRAPs, undergoing a total of 438 total joint arthroplasties (TJA). There were 11 cases of PE in the entire series (1.5%) only one of which was fatal (0.01%), with four non-fatal PE in the UHRAP group (0.96%). Removal was attempted for 283 of the retrievable filters (76.7%) and was successful in 280 (98.9%).

CONCLUSION

The use of IVCFs eliminated fatal PE in UHRAPs, but larger, high-quality studies, with standardised reporting, are still required to determine their absolute indications for use, complication profile, efficacy and optimum design.

Antithrombin Deficiency and Thrombosis: A Wide Clinical Scenario Reported in a Single Institution

Congenital antithrombin (AT) deficiency represents the form of thrombophilia with the highest thrombotic risk. It is characterized by a heterogeneous clinical presentation, depending mostly on the family history of thrombosis and type of genetic mutation. Inherited AT deficiency promotes idiopathic thrombosis at an early age (even in the pediatric population) and at atypical sites. Therefore, a positive family background necessitates ruling out this high-risk thrombophilia at a young age. Studying first-degree relatives, even if they are asymptomatic, is essential to establish thromboprophylaxis and a proper therapeutic approach in case of thrombosis. Patients with congenital AT deficiency require indefinite anticoagulation owing to the high thrombotic recurrence rate. Here, we present four unrelated cases reported in our institution who were diagnosed with hereditary AT deficiency, with a contrasting clinical evolution.

Large Thrombus Entrapped in a Patent Foramen Ovale during Inferior Vena Cava Filter Protection for Venous Thromboembolism

Background. A large thrombus entrapped in the patent foramen ovale (PFO) is an extremely rare condition. Moreover, it is considered even rarer after temporary inferior vena cava filter (TIVCF) placement for the prevention of fatal pulmonary embolism due to venous thromboembolism (VTE). Case Report. A 58-year-old man presented with syncope following chest pain and dyspnea due to PE exacerbation during TIVCF protection, which then led to cardiogenic shock. Echocardiography revealed a large thrombus entrapped in the PFO, and computed tomography (CT) showed a bilateral pulmonary artery embolism. The patient was treated with open surgical embolectomy for a pulmonary artery thrombus and PFO thrombus with simultaneous closure of the PFO. The patient's postoperative course was uneventful. Results and Conclusion. Surgical embolectomy was useful with respect to the feasibility of resection of both intracardiac thrombus and pulmonary artery thrombus performed simultaneously, contributing to the prevention of systemic embolisms, and echocardiography plays an important role for early diagnosis.

Denali Inferior Vena Cava Filter Retrieval: Complications and Success Rates

PURPOSE

The present study was to evaluate the outcomes of Denali filter retrieval.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed 143 patients who received Denali filter insertion from September 2015 to April 2020. Ninety-seven patients who required removal of the filters were include in this study. Filters were retrieved with either standard or advanced techniques. Venography before and after retrieval was obtained to evaluate technical success, complications and duration of filter insertion.

RESULTS

All 97 filters were retrieved successfully without complications. Ninety-two (94.8%) were retrieved with standard technique and 5 filters (5.2%) required the advanced technique. There were two cases with a filter angle greater than 15 degrees. Inferior vena cava penetration was shown in 17 patients (17.5%) on venography but was not associated with contrast media extravasation after filter removal.

CONCLUSION

The Denali filter showed a high rate of successful retrieval without complications. This study adds value to previous studies and trials showing that the Denali filter is a reliable and safe filter that can potentially improve retrieval rates, with increasing use of this device.

Acute venous problems: Integrating medical, surgical, and interventional treatments

"Acute venous problems" refers to a group of disorders that affect the veins and result in sudden and severe symptoms. They can be classified based on the pathological triggering mechanisms, such as thrombosis and/or mechanical compression, and their consequences, including symptoms, signs, and complications. The management and therapeutic approach depend on the severity of the disease, the location, and the involvement of the vein segment. Although summarizing these conditions can be challenging, the objective of this narrative review was to provide an overview of the most common acute venous problems. This will include an exhaustive yet concise and practical description of each condition. The multidisciplinary approach remains one of the major advantages in dealing with these conditions, maximizing the results and the prevention of complications.

Which caval diameter? Clarification manufacturer's instructions for inferior vena cava filter use and implications for practice

AIM

To clarify manufacturer's instructions for inferior vena cava (IVC) filter use and implications for practice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three vendors of IVC filters were contacted for clarification, with all stating that caval diameter limits are to be true maximum and true minimum cross-sectional diameters. To determine the implications of this, measurements were performed on 302 abdominal computed tomography studies in four transaxial dimensions perpendicular to the long axis including true maximum and minimum diameters, and measurements reflecting those typically taken on fluoroscopic cavography.

RESULTS

Based on the true maximum and true minimum caval diameter limits as clarified by vendors, 22% of patients who would typically be considered suitable for IVC filter insertion based on frontal and lateral fluoroscopic cavography would be contraindicated, and 40% of patients who would typically be considered suitable for IVC filter insertion based on only frontal fluoroscopic cavography (as lateral projection is often not performed) would be contraindicated.

CONCLUSION

There is a marked discordance between the vendor-clarified caval diameter limits of three common IVC filter devices and real-world caval geometry. Given the rarity of complications, this suggests a pressing need for revision of manufacturers' instructions for use statements to better reflect current safe routine clinical use, particularly from a medicolegal perspective.

Prophylactic Inferior Vena Cava Filters for Venous Thromboembolism in Adults With Trauma: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Trauma is an independent risk factor for venous thromboembolism (VTE). Due to contraindications or delay in starting pharmacological prophylaxis among trauma patients with a high risk of bleeding, the inferior vena cava (IVC) filter has been utilized as alternative prevention for pulmonary embolism (PE). Albeit, its clinical efficacy has remained uncertain. Therefore, we performed an updated systematic review and meta-analysis on the effectiveness and safety of prophylactic IVC filters in severely injured patients. Methods: Three databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane) were searched from August 1, 2012, to October 27, 2021. Independent reviewers performed data extraction and quality assessment. Relative risk (RR) at 95% confidence interval (CI) pooled in a randomized meta-analysis. A parallel clinical practice guideline committee assessed the certainty of evidence using the GRADE approach. The outcomes of interest included VTE, PE, deep venous thrombosis, mortality, and IVC filter complications. Results: We included 10 controlled studies (47 140 patients), of which 3 studies (310 patients) were randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and 7 were observational studies (46 830 patients). IVC filters demonstrated no significant reduction in PE and fatal PE (RR, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.06-1.28 and RR, 0.32; 95% CI, 0.01-7.84, respectively) by pooling RCTs with low certainty. However, it demonstrated a significant reduction in the risk of PE and fatal PE (RR, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.12-0.55 and RR, 0.09; 95% CI, 0.011-0.81, respectively) by pooling observational studies with very low certainty. IVC filter did not improve mortality in both RCTs and observational studies (RR, 1.44; 95% CI, 0.86-2.43 and RR, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.3-1.31, respectively). Conclusion: In trauma patients, moderate risk reduction of PE and fatal PE was demonstrated among observational data but not RCTs. The desirable effect is not robust to outweigh the undesirable effects associated with IVC filter complications. Current evidence suggests against routinely using prophylactic IVC filters.

Inferior Vena Cava Filter Retrieval Rates Associated With Passive and Active Surveillance Strategies Adopted by Implanting Physicians

IMPORTANCE

Inferior vena cava filters are commonly implanted and infrequently retrieved. Nonretrieval contributes to significant morbidity, motivating US Food and Drug Administration and multisociety communications emphasizing the need for improved device surveillance. Current guidelines suggest that implanting physicians and referring physicians should be responsible for device follow-up, but it is not known whether shared responsibility contributes to lower retrieval.

OBJECTIVE

To determine if primary responsibility for follow-up care assumed by the implanting physician team is associated with increased device retrieval.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This retrospective cohort study examined a prospectively collected registry of patients with inferior vena cava filters implanted from June 2011 to September 2019. Medical record review and data analysis was completed in 2021. The study included 699 patients who underwent implantation of retrievable inferior vena cava filters at an academic quaternary care center.

EXPOSURES

Prior to 2016, implanting physicians had a passive surveillance strategy whereby letters highlighting indications for and the need for timely retrieval were mailed to patients and ordering clinicians. Starting in 2016, implanting physicians assumed active responsibility for surveillance, whereby candidacy for device retrieval was assessed periodically via phone calls and retrieval scheduled when appropriate.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The main outcome was the odds of inferior vena cava filter nonretrieval. Within regression modeling of the association between the surveillance method and nonretrieval, additional covariates of patient demographics, concomitant malignant neoplasm, and presence of thromboembolic disease were included.

RESULTS

Of the 699 patients who received retrievable filter implants, 386 (55.2%) were followed up with passive surveillance, 313 (44.8%) with active surveillance, 346 (49.5%) were female, 100 (14.3%) were Black individuals, and 502 (71.8%) were White individuals. The mean (SD) age at filter implantation was 57.1 (16.0) years. Mean (SD) yearly filter retrieval increased following the adoption of active surveillance, from 190 of 386 (48.7%) to 192 of 313 (61.3%) (P < .001). Fewer filters were deemed permanent in the active group vs passive group (5 of 313 [1.6%] vs 47 of 386 [12.2%]; P < .001). Age at the time of implantation (OR, 1.02; 95% CI, 1.01-1.03), concomitant malignant neoplasm (OR, 2.18; 95% CI, 1.47-3.24), and passive contact method (OR, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.18-2.47) were associated with increased odds of filter nonretrieval.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The findings of this cohort study suggest that active surveillance by implanting physicians is associated with improved inferior vena cava filter retrieval. These findings support encouraging physicians who implant the filter to take primary responsibility for tracking and retrieval.

Cost Burden and Cost Influencers of Inferior Vena Cava Filter Placement and Retrieval among Medicare Beneficiaries with Acute Venous Thromboembolism

PURPOSE

To examine the frequency, costs, and cost influencers of inferior vena cava filters (IVCFs) placements and retrievals among a national sample of patients using Medicare data.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This retrospective cohort study used the U.S. Medicare 100% database, a nationally representative sample of all U.S. patients aged ≥65 years, from 2014 through 2020. Procedures and clinical characteristics were identified from the diagnosis and procedure codes on Medicare claims. Beneficiaries aged ≥65 years with newly diagnosed venous thromboembolism (VTE) were identified and followed to obtain data on IVCF placements and retrievals. Data on the costs of the index IVCF procedures and any subsequent IVCF placements and retrievals were obtained. Multivariate models were used to estimate the impact of patient and clinical characteristics on costs.

RESULTS

Among 501,216 patients with newly diagnosed VTE, 4,995 (1%) received an IVCF placement; of these, 1,215 (24.3%) had a retrieval procedure. Beneficiaries with IVCF placements and retrievals differed from a demographic and clinical perspective than from those without. Costs varied by the site of service, VTE acuity, and VTE type. Cost influencers included age, race, census region, service location, and VTE type.

CONCLUSIONS

IVCF placement costs were driven by baseline patient characteristics (age, race, geographic residence, acute VTE diagnosis, and inpatient site of service), whereas retrieval costs were driven by age and deep vein thrombosis diagnosis. Strategies to mitigate the retrieval costs or the need to retrieve IVCFs may reduce the overall cost burden of IVCFs.

Retrieval of a Cook Celect inferior vena cava (IVC) filter after prolonged dwell time of 5,117 days: Factors to consider for retrieval of long-dwell IVC filters

Inferior vena cava (IVC) filters are used in certain patients to help prevent the occurrence of pulmonary embolism (PE). IVC filters are generally recommended to be removed once PE prophylaxis is no longer required. Long-dwelling IVC filters are associated with higher complication rates (Vasa 2020; 49: 449), being more difficult to retrieve and associated with higher retrieval complications (Cardiovasc Diagn Ther 2016; 6: 632). This report describes the pre-procedural work-up and removal of an IVC filter with a prolonged dwell time of 5,117 days (14 years, 3 days) using the loop snare advanced retrieval technique. As far as the authors are aware this case is the longest-described successful retrieval of a Cook Celect IVC filter at 5,117 days.

Metal in motion: a case report of inferior vena cava filter migration

Background

Inferior vena cava (IVC) filter migration, particularly to the heart, is a rare complication. Small metal fragments may be inadequately characterized on transthoracic echocardiography and may be missed entirely on chest radiograph. Managing the adverse outcomes of IVC filters is a formidable challenge as retrieval carries the risk of arrhythmia, right ventricular perforation, and damage to the tricuspid valve.

Case summary

A woman in her fifties underwent routine computed tomography (CT) calcium score screening and was found to have a metallic fragment in the right ventricle of her heart. Subsequent contrast enhanced, ECG-gated cardiac CTA was completed and images were reconstructed to yield cine images on syngo.via (Siemens, Erlangen, Germany) and vitrea workstation (version: 6.6.3; Vital, Toshiba Medical Systems) to guide heart team discussion and clinical management.

Discussion

Our case illustrates the benefit of CTA with cineography in characterizing the location, size, and extent of fragment involvement within the myocardium. Moreover, this case serves as a reminder to medical professionals to carefully consider IVC filter placement in the appropriate patient, remain vigilant regarding potential complications, and to aspire follow-up of removable filters.

Retrievable Inferior Vena Cava Filters-Use, Removal, and Removal Techniques

The use of retrievable inferior vena cava filters is on the rise, but there is an inadequate number of these filters being removed even if their use as a prophylactic for venous thromboembolism is no longer indicated. Complications with retrievable filters that remain in the patient for an extended duration include examples such as filter tilt and embedding into the caval wall. This raises concerns for whether the filter is properly functioning and for consequent sequelae, including recurrent thrombosis, stenosis, or inferior vena cava perforation. With these complications, there are also challenges to retrieving these filters via the standard techniques and thus more advanced techniques are required. Both standard and advanced techniques, their uses, and possible risks of these methods are also discussed.

Endobronchial Forceps Retrieval of Embedded Inferior Vena Cava Filters: Retrieval of 535 Filters at a Single Center

PURPOSE

To report results of 16 years of using the endobronchial forceps technique to remove embedded inferior vena cava (IVC) filters.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Between January 2005 and June 2021, 534 patients (310 women and 224 men) with a mean age of 52 years (standard deviation [SD] ± 16 years) presented for complex filter retrieval of 535 tip- or strut-embedded IVC filters. Tip-embedded filters were diagnosed on rotational venography. Filters were considered strut-embedded if they were closed-cell filters with dwell times of >6 months. The filter was dissected from the IVC using rigid bronchoscopy forceps and removed through a vascular sheath.

RESULTS

The endobronchial forceps technique was successful in 530 of 537 retrieval attempts on an intention-to-treat basis (98.7%); a total of 530 filters were retrieved. There were 7 failures: (a) 5 failed retrieval attempts (2 that were retrieved successfully in subsequent procedures) and (b) 2 for which retrieval was not attempted. The mean filter dwell time was 1,459 days (SD ± 1,617 days). Laser sheaths were not used for any removal. Filters included herein were 137 Celect (94 Celect and 43 Celect Platinum), 99 Günther Tulip, 72 Option (48 Option and 24 Option Elite), 68 G2, 45 G2X/Eclipse, 42 Denali, 30 OptEase, 29 Recovery, 7 Meridian, and 6 ALN with Hook filters. Thirty-four minor (6.3%) and 11 major (2%) adverse events (AEs) occurred, which did not result in permanent sequelae.

CONCLUSIONS

Use of endobronchial forceps for removal of tip- and strut-embedded retrievable IVC filters is effective and has low AE rates.

The application of inferior vena cava filters in orthopaedics and current research advances

Deep vein thrombosis is a common clinical peripheral vascular disease that occurs frequently in orthopaedic patients and may lead to pulmonary embolism (PE) if the thrombus is dislodged. pulmonary embolism can be prevented by placing an inferior vena cava filter (IVCF) to intercept the dislodged thrombus. Thus, IVCFs play an important role in orthopaedics. However, the occurrence of complications after inferior vena cava filter placement, particularly recurrent thromboembolism, makes it necessary to carefully assess the risk-benefit of filter placement. There is no accepted statement as to whether IVCF should be placed in orthopaedic patients. Based on the problems currently displayed in the use of IVCFs, an ideal IVCF is proposed that does not affect the vessel wall and haemodynamics and intercepts thrombi well. The biodegradable filters that currently exist come close to the description of an ideal filter that can reduce the occurrence of various complications. Currently available biodegradable IVCFs consist of various organic polymeric materials. Biodegradable metals have shown good performance in making biodegradable IVCFs. However, among the available experimental studies on degradable filters, there are no experimental studies on filters made of degradable metals. This article reviews the use of IVCFs in orthopaedics, the current status of filters and the progress of research into biodegradable vena cava filters and suggests possible future developments based on the published literature by an electronic search of PubMed and Medline databases for articles related to IVCFs searchable by October 2022 and a manual search for citations to relevant studies.

Case report: Endoluminal removal of a retrievable conical inferior vena cava filter with a ruptured retraction hook attached to the wall

We report the case of a patient who underwent endovascular retrieval of a conical inferior vena cava (IVC) filter with a ruptured retraction hook that was attached to the IVC wall. A 21-year-old woman with a Celect (Cook) filter, implanted 1,522 days prior, requested retrieval. Preoperative ultrasound and CT examinations showed that the filter was inclined, the retraction hook was attached to the IVC wall, and one of the filter’s pedicles was broken. The inferior vena cava was patent, with no thrombus. Old superficial femoral vein thrombosis could be seen in the right lower extremity. The filter retrieval equipment (Gunther Tulip, Cook) failed to capture the retraction hook. By means of a pigtail catheter (with a partly removed catheter tip) and loach guidewire, we applied a modified loop-snare technique to successfully cut the proliferative tissue near the tip of the retraction hook, by which the hook re-entered the inferior vena cava. Although the snare successfully captured the retraction hook and retrieved the filter, the broken pedicle was retained in the inferior vena cava. We used forceps to capture and pull it to the distal end. In the end, the inferior vena cava became patent, with no contrast agent spillage or residual, and no symptomatic pulmonary embolization. A simultaneous occurrence of oblique adherence and fracture is rarely found in the same filter; however, by using the modified loop-snare technique and biopsy forceps technique, we successfully retrieved the filter and broken pedicle. Our case provides a practical auxiliary technique for regular clinical practice.

Evaluation of hemodynamic effects of different inferior vena cava filter heads using computational fluid dynamics

Inferior vena cava (IVC) filters are used to prevent pulmonary embolism in patients with deep vein thrombosis for whom anticoagulation is unresponsive. The head is a necessary structure for an Inferior vena cava filter (IVCF) in clinic use. At present, there are various head configurations for IVCFs. However, the effect of head pattern on the hemodynamics of IVCF is still a matter of unclear. In this study, computational fluid dynamics is used to simulate non-Newtonian blood flows around four IVCFs with different heads inside an IVC model, in which the Denali filter with a solid and hooked head is employed as a prototype, and three virtual variants are reconstructed either with a no-hook head or with a through-hole head for comparison. The simulation results show that the through-hole head can effectively avoid the recirculation region and weaken the blood flow stasis closely downstream the IVCF head. The shape change of the filter head has no significant effect on the blood flow acceleration inside the IVCF cone as well as little influence on the wall shear stress (WSS) distribution on the filter wire surface and IVC wall. The structure pattern of filter head greatly affects the flow resistance of its own. However, the flow drag of filter head only occupies a small proportion of the total resistance of IVCF. Therefore, to reduce the flow resistance of an IVCF should optimize its whole structure.

A retrospective cohort study assessing the incidence of inferior vena cava (IVC) occlusion following prophylactic IVC filter insertion: Is anticoagulation necessary during filter dwell?

BACKGROUND

Inferior vena cava (IVC) filters play a role in preventing venous thromboembolism after major trauma where deep venous thrombosis (DVT) risk is up to 80%. It has been suggested that IVC filters are thrombogenic and many patients are therefore placed on therapeutic anticoagulation during IVC filter dwell citing concern of in situ IVC thrombosis, even in the absence of existing DVT.

METHODS

Between 1 June 2018 and 31 December 2021, this retrospective study assessed the incidence of IVC thrombosis following prophylactic IVC filter insertion. Groups were defined according to the presence or absence of therapeutic anticoagulation during filter dwell. The primary outcome was the presence or absence of IVC thrombus at retrieval.

RESULTS

A total of 124 patients were included. Anticoagulation was prescribed in 29 and anticoagulation was not prescribed in 63. A further 32 patients developed a new thrombosis episode after the prophylactic IVC filter was placed, and 29 were prescribed anticoagulation part-way during filter dwell as a result of this diagnosis. No cases of IVC occlusion were observed in any patient group.

CONCLUSIONS

Caval thrombosis was not observed after prophylactic filter placement, with or without the prescription of anticoagulation. While prospective trials are needed to increase the level of evidence, based on these results the use of therapeutic anticoagulation during IVC filter dwell should not be dictated by the presence of an IVC filter alone but rather by the presence of a related thrombosis event.

Migration of an Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) Filter Into the Intrahepatic IVC: A Case Report

The use of Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) filters is increasing for patients who cannot otherwise receive anticoagulation for a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE). In this case, a 60-year-old man presenting with abdominal pain was found to have migration of his IVC filter into his intrahepatic IVC. Interventional radiology (IR) and vascular surgery were consulted as the migrated IVC filter was felt to be the likely cause of the patient’s pain. Consideration was given to transferring the patient to a liver transplant center to retrieve the migrated filter. When patients with a history of IVC filter placement present to the emergency department, a high index of suspicion for IVC filter complication should be maintained and there should be a low threshold for ordering CT imaging. If a severe IVC filter complication is discovered, patients may ultimately require transfer to a center with hepatic surgery capability for definitive treatment given the complex vasculature involved.

Anti-coagulation and anti-hyperplasia coating for retrievable vena cava filters by electrospraying and their performance in vivo

A novel drug eluting retrievable vena cava filter (RVCF) with a heparin-modified poly(ε-caprolactone) (hPCL) coating containing rapamycin was prepared by electrospraying. The in vitro drug release pattern showed that the encapsulated rapamycin in the coating can be sustainably released within one month, whereas activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and in vitro cell culture showed that the drug eluting RVCF can effectively extend blood clotting time and inhibit smooth muscle cell (SMC) and endothelial cell (EC) proliferation, respectively. The as-prepared drug eluting RVCF and corresponding commercial RVCF were implanted into the vena cava of sheep. The retrieval operation at a predetermined time point showed that the drug eluting RVCF had a much higher retrieval rate than the commercial RVCF. Comprehensive investigations, including histological, immunohistological and immunofluorescence analyses, on explanted veins were carried out. The results demonstrated that the as-prepared RVCF possessed excellent antihyperplasia properties in vivo, significantly improving the retrieval rate and extending the in vivo dwelling time in sheep. Consequently, the drug eluting RVCF has promising potential for application in the clinic to improve RVCF retrieval rates.

The Good, Bad, and Ugly of Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) Filters: Anesthetic Management for IVC Filter Retrieval in the Setting of Filter Thrombosis

We describe a case of a 58-year-old man presenting to the interventional radiology (IR) suite for inferior vena cava (IVC) filter retrieval and potential intravascular iliocaval stent reconstruction in the setting of anticoagulation and uncontrolled hypertension. This patient had recently undergone iliocaval thrombectomy with IVC venoplasty four weeks prior to presentation. Induction of anesthesia and endotracheal intubation occurred without complication. The patient received two large-bore intravenous (IV) catheters and a radial artery catheter for hemodynamic monitoring. Blood was cross-matched and kept in the IR suite, anticipating bleeding from a potential injury to the IVC during filter retrieval. Fortunately, the thrombosed filter was removed without complication. This case illustrates the importance of in-depth anesthetic planning for so-called “benign” surgical procedures and highlights the challenges faced in non-operating room locations for anesthesiologists.

Influence of sex and age on inferior vena cava diameter and implications for the implantation of vena cava filters

Abstract Background Measuring the venous diameter and choosing a compatible vena cava filter are essential to reduce the risk of complications resulting from implantation of these devices. However, there is little information on how the diameter of the inferior vena cava varies with sex and age. Objectives To determine the influence of patients’ gender and age on their inferior vena cava diameter and the suitability of the different models of available filters. Methods Retrospective analytical study based on computed tomography images. The diameter of the inferior vena cava was measured at 3 points: above the confluence of the common iliac veins, below the renal veins, and midway between these two points (cranial point, caudal point, and midpoint) using Arya® and Carestream PACS® software. The results were classified by sex and age groups. Results CT scans of 417 patients were analyzed: 245 women and 172 men. The diameters at the midpoint and caudal point were, respectively, 19.1 mm and 20.6 mm in women from 81 to 92 years old and were statistically smaller (p< 0.05) when compared to women aged 19 to 40 years (midpoint: 22.7 mm; caudal point: 23 mm). Similar results were seen in men. Venous diameters at the cranial and caudal points in patients aged from 51 to 70 years were statistically larger in men (cranial point: 24.4 mm; caudal point:22.3 mm) than in women (cranial point: 22.6 mm; caudal point:20.8 mm) (p< 0.05). Conclusions A smaller diameter was found for the inferior vena cava in older patients of both sexes and the rate of diameter change was similar among men and women.

Influência do sexo e da idade sobre o diâmetro da cava inferior e implicações para o implante de filtros de veia cava

Resumo Contexto A aferição do diâmetro venoso e a escolha de um filtro de veia cava compatível são fundamentais para diminuir o risco de complicações decorrentes do implante desses dispositivos. Entretanto, são escassas as informações sobre como o diâmetro da cava inferior varia de acordo com o sexo e a idade. Objetivos Determinar a influência do sexo e da idade dos pacientes sobre o diâmetro da cava inferior e a adequação dos diferentes modelos de filtro disponíveis. Métodos Estudo analítico retrospectivo, realizado a partir de imagens de tomografia computadorizada. O diâmetro no segmento infrarrenal da veia cava inferior foi aferido em três pontos (cranial, médio e caudal). Os resultados foram classificados de acordo com o sexo e as faixas etárias. Resultados Foram analisadas tomografias de 417 pacientes: 245 mulheres e 172 homens. Os diâmetros nos pontos médio e caudal foram, respectivamente, 19,1 mm e 20,6 mm em mulheres de 81 a 92 anos, sendo estatisticamente menores (p < 0,05) quando comparados aos de mulheres com idade entre 19 e 40 anos (diâmetro no ponto médio: 22,7 mm; diâmetro no ponto caudal: 23 mm). Resultados semelhantes foram observados em homens. Os diâmetros venosos nos pontos cranial e caudal foram estatisticamente maiores em homens (ponto cranial: 24,4 mm; ponto caudal: 22,3 mm) do que em mulheres (ponto cranial: 22,6 mm; ponto caudal: 20,8 mm) em pacientes com idade entre 51 e 70 anos (p < 0,05). Conclusões O diâmetro da veia cava inferior foi menor em pacientes com idade mais avançada em ambos os sexos, e a taxa de variação do diâmetro foi semelhante entre homens e mulheres.

Retroperitoneal Laparoscopic-Assisted Retrieval of Wall-Penetrating Inferior Vena Cava Filter After Endovascular Techniques Failed: An Initial Clinical Outcome

BACKGROUND

Inferior vena cava (IVC) filters are commonly used in China to prevent pulmonary embolisms in patients with deep vein thrombosis. However, IVC filter removal is complicated when the filter has penetrated the IVC wall and endovascular techniques usually fail. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of retroperitoneal laparoscopic-assisted retrieval of wall-penetrating IVC filters after endovascular techniques have failed.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We retrospectively evaluated a series of 8 patients who underwent retroperitoneal laparoscopic-assisted retrieval of a wall-penetrating IVC filter between December 2017 and November 2019. All patients had experienced at least 1 failure with endovascular retrieval before the study. The filters were slanted and the proximal retrieval hooks penetrated the posterior lateral IVC wall in all patients on computed tomography. Demographic information, operation parameters, and complications were recorded and analyzed. All patients were followed up for at least 12 months.

RESULTS

The procedure was successful in all patients. The median surgery time was 53.6 ± 12.7 min and the average blood loss was 45.0 ± 13.5 ml. No serious complication occurred during the patients' hospitalization, which was an average of 6.4 days. The median follow-up time was 15.1 months, and no patient had deep vein thrombosis recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

Retroperitoneal laparoscopic-assisted retrieval is a feasible and effective technique, particularly when proximal retrieval hooks penetrate the posterior lateral wall of the IVC after endovascular techniques have failed. To some extent, the development of this technique at our institution has increased the success rate of filter removal and improved patient satisfaction.

Gastrointestinal Malignancies and Venous Thromboembolic Disease: Clinical Significance and Endovascular Interventions

Gastrointestinal malignancy encompasses a wide range of disease processes. Its incidence and mortality rate rank among the highest of all cancers. Venous thromboembolic disease is a common complication of gastrointestinal malignancy. Anticoagulation remains the first-line therapy. However, for patients who cannot tolerate or have failed anticoagulation, inferior vena cava (IVC) filter placement may be an option. Furthermore, to improve symptom resolution and reduce the severity of postthrombotic syndrome, catheter-directed thrombolysis (CDT) may be an option. Recent randomized trials including the ATTRACT (Acute Venous Thrombosis: Thrombus Removal with Adjunctive Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis) trial have shed new light on the efficacy and safety of CDT and related methods. Overall, the decision to proceed with IVC filter placement or CDT must be individualized.