1
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Towards Early Detection of Tropospheric Aerosol Layers Using Monitoring with Ceilometer, Photometer, and Air Mass Trajectories. REMOTE SENSING 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/rs14051217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
A near-real-time automatic detection system, based on the synergy of continuous measurements taken by a ceilometer and a photometer, has been implemented in order to detect lofted atmospheric aerosol layers and estimate the aerosol load. When heavy-loaded conditions are detected (defined by a significant deviation of the optical properties from a 10-year climatology), obtained for aerosol layers above 2500 m, an automatic alert is sent to scientists of the Romanian Lidar Network (ROLINET) to further monitor the event. The Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) back-trajectory calculations are used to establish the possible pollution source. The aerosol transport events are considered to be major when various optical properties provided by the photometer are found outside the climatological values. The aerosol types over the three years for all the events identified revealed that the contribution to the pollution was 31%, 9%, and 60% from marine, dust, and continental types. Considering only the ‘outside climatology limits’ events, the respective contribution was 15%, 12%, and 73% for marine, dust, and continental types, respectively.
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2
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Potential Approach for Single-Peak Extinction Fitting of Aerosol Profiles Based on In Situ Measurements for the Improvement of Surface PM2.5 Retrieval from Satellite AOD Product. REMOTE SENSING 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/rs12132174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The vertical distribution of aerosols is important for accurate surface PM2.5 retrieval and initial modeling forecasts of air pollution, but the observation of aerosol profiles on the regional scale is usually limited. Therefore, in this study, an approach to aerosol extinction profile fitting is proposed to improve surface PM2.5 retrieval from satellite observations. Owing to the high similarity of the single-peak extinction profile in the distribution pattern, the log-normal distribution is explored for the fitting model based on a decadal dataset (3248 in total) from Micro Pulse LiDAR (MPL) measurements. The logarithmic mean, standard deviation, and the height of peak extinction near-surface (Mode) are manually derived as the references for model construction. Considering the seasonal impacts on the planetary boundary layer height (PBLH), Mode, and the height of the surface layer, the extinction profile is then constructed in terms of the planetary boundary layer height (PBLH) and the total column aerosol optical depth (AOD). A comparison between fitted profiles and in situ measurements showed a high level of consistency in terms of the correlation coefficient (0.8973) and root-mean-square error (0.0415). The satellite AOD is subsequently applied for three-dimensional aerosol extinction, and the good agreement of the extinction coefficient with the PM2.5 within the surface layer indicates the good performance of the proposed fitting approach and the potential of satellite observations for providing accurate PM2.5 data on a regional scale.
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Abstract
A shipborne micro-pulse lidar (Sigma Space Mini-MPL) was used to measure aerosol extinction coefficient over the northern region of the South China Sea from 9 August to 7 September 2016, the first time a mini-MPL was used for aerosol observation over the cruise region. The goal of the experiment was to investigate if the compact and affordable mini-MPL was usable for aerosol observation over this region. The measurements were used to calculate vertical profiles of volume extinction coefficient, depolarization ratio, and atmospheric boundary layer height. Aerosol optical depth (AOD) was lower over the southwest side of the cruise region, compared to the northeast side. Most attenuation occurred below 3.5 km, and maximum extinction values over coastal areas were generally about double of values offshore. The extinction coefficients at 532 nm (aerosol and molecular combined) over coastal and offshore areas were on average 0.04 km−1 and 0.02 km−1, respectively. Maximum values reached 0.2 km−1 and 0.14 km−1, respectively. Vertical profiles and back-trajectory calculations indicated vertical and horizontal layering of aerosols from different terrestrial sources. The mean volume depolarization ratio of the aerosols along the cruise was 0.04. The mean atmospheric boundary layer height along the cruise was 653 m, with a diurnal cycle reaching its mean maximum of 1041 m at 12:00 local time, and its mean minimum of 450 m at 20:00 local time. Unfortunately, only 11% of the measurements were usable. This was due to ship instability in rough cruise conditions, lack of stabilization rig, water condensation attached to the eye lens, and high humidity attenuating the echo signal. We recommend against the use of the mini-MPL in this cruise region unless substantial improvements are made to the default setup, e.g., instrument stabilization, instrument protection cover, and more theoretical work taking into account atmospheric gas scattering or absorption.
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4
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Qi B, Che H, Du R, Liang Z, Sun T, Wang J, Niu Y, Xu H, Hu D, Huang J. Seasonal variation of atmospheric vertical extinction and its interaction with meteorological factors in the Yangtze River Delta region. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 247:125768. [PMID: 31962225 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Based on ground-based lidar and microwave radiometer observations in Hangzhou from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2015, the monthly characteristics of diurnal extinction as well as atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) were studied. The interactions between temperature (T), humidity fields including relative humidity (RH) and specific humidity (SH) and atmospheric stratification (AS) were analyzed to discuss the meteorological factors in the Yangtze River Delta region during the study period. The top of ABLMPL varied from 0.8 km to 1.0 km throughout in January with higher extinction intensity close to the surface combined to the largest PM2.5 about 100-120 μg/m3. Then the ABLMPL could develop up to 1.5 km in the spring due to the weaker extinction during the daytime. The RH in the whole column in January and December was lower than the mean value (ranging from 5% to 20%) distributed from the ground to 3 km. From May to September, the RH anomaly profiles became positive contributed to larger extinction by strengthened the particle scattering ability. In January and December, the AS was stable from the surface to 3 km coincided with the extinction distribution; while in July and August, the gradient of Δθse decreased which favored the diffusion of particle in the air. Moreover, April and October presented turning points in the variation of θse. The humidity field reveals a stable condition in January and December which favored particles suppressed from the near surface to 3 km; the temperature field has tended towards a neutral state in most months except for February. The first change-point of the meteorological fields was found in April possibly attributable to the abnormal abrupt in the subtropical high. This study could have important reference for understanding regional air quality and governing air control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Qi
- Hangzhou Meteorological Bureau, Hangzhou, 310051, China; State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather (LASW), Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry (LAC), Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, CMA, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Huizheng Che
- State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather (LASW), Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry (LAC), Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, CMA, Beijing, 100081, China.
| | - Rongguang Du
- Hangzhou Meteorological Bureau, Hangzhou, 310051, China
| | - Zhuoran Liang
- Hangzhou Meteorological Bureau, Hangzhou, 310051, China
| | - Tianze Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather (LASW), Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry (LAC), Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, CMA, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Jizhi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather (LASW), Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry (LAC), Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, CMA, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yuwen Niu
- Zhejiang Meteorological Science Institute, Hangzhou, 310008, China
| | - Honghui Xu
- Zhejiang Meteorological Science Institute, Hangzhou, 310008, China
| | - Deyun Hu
- Hangzhou Meteorological Bureau, Hangzhou, 310051, China
| | - Jie Huang
- Hangzhou Meteorological Bureau, Hangzhou, 310051, China
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Pauly RM, Yorks JE, Hlavka DL, McGill MJ, Amiridis V, Palm SP, Rodier SD, Vaughan MA, Selmer PA, Kupchock AW, Baars H, Gialitaki A. Cloud Aerosol Transport System (CATS) 1064 nm Calibration and Validation. ATMOSPHERIC MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 2019; 12:6241-6258. [PMID: 33414857 PMCID: PMC7786814 DOI: 10.5194/amt-12-6241-2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The Cloud-Aerosol Transport System (CATS) lidar on board the International Space Station (ISS) operated from 10 February 2015 to 30 October 2017 providing range-resolved vertical backscatter profiles of Earth's atmosphere at 1064 and 532 nm. The CATS instrument design and ISS orbit lead to a higher 1064 nm signal-to-noise ratio than previous space-based lidars, allowing for direct atmospheric calibration of the 1064 nm signals. Nighttime CATS Version 3-00 data were calibrated by scaling the measured data to a model of the expected atmospheric backscatter between 22 and 26 km above mean sea level (AMSL). The CATS atmospheric model is constructed using molecular backscatter profiles derived from Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2) re-analysis data and aerosol scattering ratios measured by the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP). The nighttime normalization altitude region was chosen to simultaneously minimize aerosol loading and variability within the CATS data frame, which extends from 28 km to -2 km AMSL. Daytime CATS Version 3-00 data were calibrated through comparisons with nighttime measurements of the layer integrated attenuated total backscatter (iATB) from strongly scattering, rapidly attenuating opaque cirrus clouds. The CATS nighttime 1064 nm attenuated total backscatter (ATB) uncertainties for clouds and aerosols are primarily related to the uncertainties in the CATS nighttime calibration technique, which are estimated to be ~9%. Median CATS V3-00 1064 nm ATB relative uncertainty at night within cloud and aerosol layers is 7%, slightly lower than these calibration uncertainty estimates. CATS median daytime 1064 nm ATB relative uncertainty is 21% in cloud and aerosol layers, similar to the estimated 16-18% uncertainty in the CATS daytime cirrus cloud calibration transfer technique. Coincident daytime comparisons between CATS and the Cloud Physics Lidar (CPL) during the CATS-CALIPSO Airborne Validation Experiment (CCAVE) project show good agreement in mean ATB profiles for clear-air regions. Eight nighttime comparisons between CATS and the PollyXT ground based lidars also show good agreement in clear-air regions between 3-12 km, with CATS having a mean ATB of 19.7 % lower than PollyXT. Agreement between the two instruments (~7%) is even better within an aerosol layer. Six-month comparisons of nighttime ATB values between CATS and the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) also show that iATB comparisons of opaque cirrus clouds agree to within 19%. Overall, CATS has demonstrated that direct calibration of the 1064 nm channel is possible from a space based lidar using the atmospheric normalization technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca M Pauly
- Science Systems and Applications Inc., Lanham, 20706, United States
| | - John E Yorks
- NASA Godard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, 20771, United States
| | - Dennis L Hlavka
- Science Systems and Applications Inc., Lanham, 20706, United States
| | - Matthew J McGill
- NASA Godard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, 20771, United States
| | - Vassilis Amiridis
- National Observatory of Athens, Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Application and Remote Sensing, Athens, Greece
| | - Stephen P Palm
- Science Systems and Applications Inc., Lanham, 20706, United States
| | - Sharon D Rodier
- Science Systems and Applications Inc., Hampton, 23666, United States
| | | | - Patrick A Selmer
- Science Systems and Applications Inc., Lanham, 20706, United States
| | | | - Holger Baars
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anna Gialitaki
- National Observatory of Athens, Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Application and Remote Sensing, Athens, Greece
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Monsoon Season Quantitative Assessment of Biomass Burning Clear-Sky Aerosol Radiative Effect at Surface by Ground-Based Lidar Observations in Pulau Pinang, Malaysia in 2014. REMOTE SENSING 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/rs11222660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Direct and indirect aerosol effects are still one of the largest uncertainties related to the Earth energy budget, especially in a wild and remote region like South-East Asia, where ground-based measurements are still difficult and scarce, while endemic cloudy skies make difficult active and passive satellite observations. In this preliminary study, we analyzed and quantitatively assessed the differences between monsoon and inter-monsoon seasons, in terms of radiative effects at surface and columnar heating rate, of clear-sky biomass burning aerosols (no clouds) using ground-based lidar observations obtained with a 355 nm elastic lidar instrument, deployed since 2012 at the Physics Department of Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). The model-based back-trajectory analysis put in evidence that, during the monsoon seasons (November–March and June–September), the air masses advected towards the observational site transit over active fire hotspot regions, in contrast with the inter-monsoon season. In between the monsoon seasons (April–May, October), the atmosphere over Penang is constituted by local background urban aerosols that originate from road traffic emissions, domestic cooking, and industrial plants emissions. The analysis was carried out using the vertically-resolved profiles of the seasonal averaged aerosol optical properties (monsoon vs. inter-monsoon seasons), e.g., the atmospheric extinction coefficient, to evaluate the seasonal surface aerosol radiative effect and column heating rate differences through the Fu–Liou–Gu (FLG) radiative transfer model. The results put in evidence that the biomass burning advection during the monsoon season (especially during the South West monsoon from June to September) lowers the noon daytime incoming solar shortwave solar radiation reaching the Earth surface with respect to the local background conditions by 91.5 W/m2 (114–69 W/m2). The aerosols also lead to an averaged heating in the first kilometer of the atmosphere of about 4.9 K/day (6.4–3.4 W/m2). The two combined effects, i.e., less absorbed energy by Earth surface and warming of the first kilometer of the boundary layer, increase the low-level stability during monsoon seasons, with a possible reduction in cloud formation and precipitation. The net effect is to exacerbate the haze episodes, as the pollutants rest trapped into the boundary layer. Besides these considerations, the lidar measurements are of great interest in this particular world region and might be used for cal/val of the future space missions, e. g., Earthcare.
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Vertically Resolved Precipitation Intensity Retrieved through a Synergy between the Ground-Based NASA MPLNET Lidar Network Measurements, Surface Disdrometer Datasets and an Analytical Model Solution. REMOTE SENSING 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/rs10071102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Welton EJ, Stewart SA, Lewis JR, Belcher LR, Campbell JR, Lolli S. Status of the NASA Micro Pulse Lidar Network (MPLNET): overview of the network and future plans, new version 3 data products, and the polarized MPL. EPJ WEB OF CONFERENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201817609003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The NASA Micro Pulse Lidar Network (MPLNET) is a global federated network of Micro-Pulse Lidars (MPL) co-located with the NASA Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET). MPLNET began in 2000, and there are currently 17 long-term sites, numerous field campaigns, and more planned sites on the way. We have developed a new Version 3 processing system including the deployment of polarized MPLs across the network. Here we provide an overview of Version 3, the polarized MPL, and current and future plans.
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9
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Li Z, Guo J, Ding A, Liao H, Liu J, Sun Y, Wang T, Xue H, Zhang H, Zhu B. Aerosol and boundary-layer interactions and impact on air quality. Natl Sci Rev 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwx117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 387] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Air quality is concerned with pollutants in both the gas phase and solid or liquid phases. The latter are referred to as aerosols, which are multifaceted agents affecting air quality, weather and climate through many mechanisms. Unlike gas pollutants, aerosols interact strongly with meteorological variables with the strongest interactions taking place in the planetary boundary layer (PBL). The PBL hosting the bulk of aerosols in the lower atmosphere is affected by aerosol radiative effects. Both aerosol scattering and absorption reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the ground and thus reduce the sensible heat fluxes that drive the diurnal evolution of the PBL. Moreover, aerosols can increase atmospheric stability by inducing a temperature inversion as a result of both scattering and absorption of solar radiation, which suppresses dispersion of pollutants and leads to further increases in aerosol concentration in the lower PBL. Such positive feedback is especially strong during severe pollution events. Knowledge of the PBL is thus crucial for understanding the interactions between air pollution and meteorology. A key question is how the diurnal evolution of the PBL interacts with aerosols, especially in vertical directions, and affects air quality. We review the major advances in aerosol measurements, PBL processes and their interactions with each other through complex feedback mechanisms, and highlight the priorities for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanqing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, GCESS, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 1000875, China
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Maryland, MD 21029, USA
| | - Jianping Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Aijun Ding
- School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Hong Liao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Jianjun Liu
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Maryland, MD 21029, USA
| | - Yele Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Boundary Layer Physics and Atmospheric Chemistry, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Tijian Wang
- School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Huiwen Xue
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Hongsheng Zhang
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Bin Zhu
- School of Atmospheric Physics, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
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10
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Deng T, Deng X, Li F, Wang S, Wang G. Study on aerosol optical properties and radiative effect in cloudy weather in the Guangzhou region. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 568:147-154. [PMID: 27295588 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Currently, Guangzhou region was facing the problem of severe air pollution. Large amount of aerosols in the polluted air dramatically attenuated solar radiation. This study investigated the vertical optical properties of aerosols and inverted the height of boundary layer in the Guangzhou region using the lidar. Simultaneously, evaluated the impact of different types of clouds on aerosol radiation effects using the SBDART. The results showed that the height of the boundary layer and the surface visibility changed consistently, the average height of the boundary layer on the hazy days was only 61% of that on clear days. At the height of 2km or lower, the aerosol extinction coefficient profile distribution decreased linearly along with height on clear days, but the haze days saw an exponential decrease. When there was haze, the changing of heating rate of atmosphere caused by the aerosol decreased from 3.72K/d to 0.9K/d below the height of 2km, and the attenuation of net radiation flux at the ground surface was 97.7W/m(2), and the attenuation amplitude was 11.4%; when there were high clouds, the attenuation was 125.2W/m(2) and the attenuation amplitude was 14.6%; where there were medium cloud, the attenuation was 286.4W/m(2) and the attenuation amplitude was 33.4%. Aerosol affected mainly shortwave radiation, and affected long wave radiation very slightly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Deng
- Institute of Tropical and Marine Meteorology/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Numerical Weather Prediction, China Meteorological Administration, Guangzhou 510080, China.
| | - XueJiao Deng
- Institute of Tropical and Marine Meteorology/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Numerical Weather Prediction, China Meteorological Administration, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Fei Li
- Institute of Tropical and Marine Meteorology/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Numerical Weather Prediction, China Meteorological Administration, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - ShiQiang Wang
- Zhuhai Meteorological Administration, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Gang Wang
- Haizhu Meteorological Administration, Guangzhou, 510000, China
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11
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Wang Z, Du L, Li X, Zhou B, Meng X, Chen C, Liu Q, Liu X. Development of Three-Wavelength Polarization-Raman Lidar and Application to Shipborne Measurements. EPJ WEB OF CONFERENCES 2016. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201611917003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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12
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Mona L, Amodeo A, D’Amico G. Potentialities and Limits of ICESAT-2 Observation for Atmospheric Aerosol Investigation. EPJ WEB OF CONFERENCES 2016. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201611904004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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13
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Emetere ME, Akinyemi ML, Akin-Ojo O. Parametric retrieval model for estimating aerosol size distribution via the AERONET, LAGOS station. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2015; 207:381-390. [PMID: 26452005 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2015.09.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/21/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The size characteristics of atmospheric aerosol over the tropical region of Lagos, Southern Nigeria were investigated using two years of continuous spectral aerosol optical depth measurements via the AERONET station for four major bands i.e. blue, green, red and infrared. Lagos lies within the latitude of 6.465°N and longitude of 3.406°E. Few systems of dispersion model was derived upon specified conditions to solve challenges on aerosols size distribution within the Stokes regime. The dispersion model was adopted to derive an aerosol size distribution (ASD) model which is in perfect agreement with existing model. The parametric nature of the formulated ASD model shows the independence of each band to determine the ASD over an area. The turbulence flow of particulates over the area was analyzed using the unified number (Un). A comparative study via the aid of the Davis automatic weather station was carried out on the Reynolds number, Knudsen number and the Unified number. The Reynolds and Unified number were more accurate to describe the atmospheric fields of the location. The aerosols loading trend in January to March (JFM) and August to October (ASO) shows a yearly 15% retention of aerosols in the atmosphere. The effect of the yearly aerosol retention can be seen to partly influence the aerosol loadings between October and February.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moses Eterigho Emetere
- Department of Physics, Covenant University Canaan Land, P.M.B 1023, Ota, 122333, Nigeria.
| | - Marvel Lola Akinyemi
- Department of Physics, Covenant University Canaan Land, P.M.B 1023, Ota, 122333, Nigeria
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14
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Li J, Liu X, Yuan L, Yin Y, Li Z, Li P, Ren G, Jin L, Li R, Dong Z, Li Y, Yang J. Vertical distribution of aerosol optical properties based on aircraft measurements over the Loess Plateau in China. J Environ Sci (China) 2015; 34:44-56. [PMID: 26257345 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2015.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Revised: 01/19/2015] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Vertical distributions of aerosol optical properties based on aircraft measurements over the Loess Plateau were measured for the first time during a summertime aircraft campaign, 2013 in Shanxi, China. Data from four flights were analyzed. The vertical distributions of aerosol optical properties including aerosol scattering coefficients (σsc), absorption coefficients (σab), Angström exponent (α), single scattering albedo (ω), backscattering ratio (βsc), aerosol mass scattering proficiency (Qsc) and aerosol surface scattering proficiency (Qsc(')) were obtained. The mean statistical values of σsc were 77.45 Mm(-1) (at 450 nm), 50.72 Mm(-1) (at 550n m), and 32.02 Mm(-1) (at 700 nm). The mean value of σab was 7.62 Mm(-1) (at 550 nm). The mean values of α, βsc and ω were 1.93, 0.15, and 0.91, respectively. Aerosol concentration decreased with altitude. Most effective diameters (ED) of aerosols were less than 0.8 μm. The vertical profiles of σsc,, α, βsc, Qsc and Qsc(') showed that the aerosol scattering properties at lower levels contributed the most to the total aerosol radiative forcing. Both α and βsc had relatively large values, suggesting that most aerosols in the observational region were small particles. The mean values of σsc, α, βsc, Qsc, Qsc('), σab and ω at different height ranges showed that most of the parameters decreased with altitude. The forty-eight hour backward trajectories of air masses during the observation days indicated that the majority of aerosols in the lower level contributed the most to the total aerosol loading, and most of these particles originated from local or regional pollution emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junxia Li
- Weather Modification Office of Shanxi Province, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030032, China; Key Laboratory for Aerosol-Cloud-Precipitation of China Meteorological Administration, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210044, China.
| | - Xingang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China.
| | - Liang Yuan
- Key Laboratory for Aerosol-Cloud-Precipitation of China Meteorological Administration, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210044, China
| | - Yan Yin
- Key Laboratory for Aerosol-Cloud-Precipitation of China Meteorological Administration, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210044, China
| | - Zhanqing Li
- College of Global Change and Earth System Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Peiren Li
- Weather Modification Office of Shanxi Province, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030032, China
| | - Gang Ren
- Weather Modification Office of Shanxi Province, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030032, China
| | - Lijun Jin
- Weather Modification Office of Shanxi Province, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030032, China
| | - Runjun Li
- College of Global Change and Earth System Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Zipeng Dong
- College of Global Change and Earth System Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Meteorological Institute of Shaanxi Province, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710017, China
| | - Yiyu Li
- Weather Modification Office of Shanxi Province, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030032, China
| | - Junmei Yang
- Weather Modification Office of Shanxi Province, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030032, China
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Kanitz T, Ansmann A, Engelmann R, Althausen D. North-south cross sections of the vertical aerosol distribution over the Atlantic Ocean from multiwavelength Raman/polarization lidar during Polarstern cruises. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. ATMOSPHERES : JGR 2013; 118:2643-2655. [PMID: 25821662 PMCID: PMC4370761 DOI: 10.1002/jgrd.50273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2012] [Revised: 02/01/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2013] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Shipborne aerosol lidar observations were performed aboard the research vessel Polarstern in 2009 and 2010 during three north-south cruises from about 50°N to 50°S. The aerosol data set provides an excellent opportunity to characterize and contrast the vertical aerosol distribution over the Atlantic Ocean in the polluted northern and relatively clean southern hemisphere. Three case studies, an observed pure Saharan dust plume, a Patagonian dust plume east of South America, and a case of a mixed dust/smoke plume west of Central Africa are exemplarily shown and discussed by means of their optical properties. The meridional transatlantic cruises were used to determine the latitudinal cross section of the aerosol optical thickness (AOT). Profiles of particle backscatter and extinction coefficients are presented as mean profiles for latitudinal belts to contrast northern- and southern-hemispheric aerosol loads and optical effects. Results of lidar observations at Punta Arenas (53°S), Chile, and Stellenbosch (34°S), South Africa, are shown and confirm the lower frequency of occurrence of free-tropospheric aerosol in the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere. The maximum latitudinal mean AOT of 0.27 was found in the northern tropics (0- 15°N) in the Saharan outflow region. Marine AOT is typically 0.05 ± 0.03. Particle optical properties are presented separately for the marine boundary layer and the free troposphere. Concerning the contrast between the anthropogenically influenced midlatitudinal aerosol conditions in the 30- 60°N belt and the respective belt in the southern hemisphere over the remote Atlantic, it is found that the AOT and extinction coefficients for the vertical column from 0-5km (total aerosol column) and 1-5km height (lofted aerosol above the marine boundary layer) are a factor of 1.6 and 2 higher at northern midlatitudes than at respective southern midlatitudes, and a factor of 2.5 higher than at the clean marine southern-hemispheric site of Punta Arenas. The strong contrast is confined to the lowermost 3km of the atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kanitz
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research Leipzig, Germany
| | - A Ansmann
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research Leipzig, Germany
| | - R Engelmann
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research Leipzig, Germany
| | - D Althausen
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research Leipzig, Germany
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Liu J, Zheng Y, Li Z, Flynn C, Cribb M. Seasonal variations of aerosol optical properties, vertical distribution and associated radiative effects in the Yangtze Delta region of China. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2011jd016490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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17
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Babu SS, Chaubey JP, Krishna Moorthy K, Gogoi MM, Kompalli SK, Sreekanth V, Bagare SP, Bhatt BC, Gaur VK, Prabhu TP, Singh NS. High altitude (∼4520 m amsl) measurements of black carbon aerosols over western trans-Himalayas: Seasonal heterogeneity and source apportionment. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2011jd016722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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18
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Liu J, Zheng Y, Li Z, Cribb M. Analysis of cloud condensation nuclei properties at a polluted site in southeastern China during the AMF-China Campaign. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2011jd016395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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19
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Duflot V, Royer P, Chazette P, Baray JL, Courcoux Y, Delmas R. Marine and biomass burning aerosols in the southern Indian Ocean: Retrieval of aerosol optical properties from shipborne lidar and Sun photometer measurements. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2011jd015839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Wu Y, Gan CM, Cordero L, Gross B, Moshary F, Ahmed S. Calibration of the 1064 nm lidar channel using water phase and cirrus clouds. APPLIED OPTICS 2011; 50:3987-3999. [PMID: 21772382 DOI: 10.1364/ao.50.003987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Calibration is essential to derive aerosol backscatter coefficients from elastic scattering lidar. Unlike the visible UV wavelengths where calibration is based on a molecular reference, calibration of the 1064 nm lidar channel requires other approaches, which depend on various assumptions. In this paper, we analyze two independent calibration methods which use (i) low-altitude water phase clouds and (ii) high cirrus clouds. In particular, we show that to achieve optimal performance, aerosol attenuation below the cloud base and cloud multiple scattering must be accounted for. When all important processes are considered, we find that these two independent methods can provide a consistent calibration constant with relative differences less than 15%. We apply these calibration techniques to demonstrate the stability of our lidar on a monthly scale, along with a natural reduction of the lidar efficiency on an annual scale. Furthermore, our calibration procedure allows us to derive consistent aerosol backscatter coefficients and angstrom coefficient profiles (532-1064 nm) along with column extinction-to-backscatter ratios which are in good agreement with sky radiometer inversions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghua Wu
- Optical Remote Sensing Laboratory, City College of New York, New York, New York 10031, USA.
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Zhang J, Tong Y, Yang X, Gong J, Gong W. Detection of Atmospheric Composition Based on Lidar. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/276/1/012036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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22
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Du K, Rood MJ, Welton EJ, Varma RM, Hashmonay RA, Kim BJ, Kemme MR. Optical remote sensing to quantify fugitive particulate mass emissions from stationary short-term and mobile continuous sources: part I. Method and examples. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2011; 45:658-665. [PMID: 21142142 DOI: 10.1021/es101904q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The emissions of particulate matter (PM) from anthropogenic sources raise public concern. A new method is described here that was developed to complete in situ rapid response measurements of PM mass emissions from fugitive dust sources by use of optical remote sensing (ORS) and an anemometer. The ORS system consists of one ground-based micropulse light detection and ranging (MPL) device that was mounted on a positioner, two open path-Fourier transform infrared (OP-FTIR) spectrometers, and two open path-laser transmissometers (OP-LT). An algorithm was formulated to compute PM light extinction profiles along each of the plume's cross sections that were determined with the MPL. Size-specific PM mass emission factors were then calculated by integrating the light extinction profiles with particle mass extinction efficiencies (determined with the OP-FTIRs/OP-LTs) and the wind's speed and direction. This method also quantifies the spatial and temporal variability of the plume's PM mass concentrations across each of the plume's cross sections. Example results from three field studies are also described to demonstrate how this new method is used to determine mass emission factors as well as characterize the dust plumes' horizontal and vertical dimensions and temporal variability of the PM's mass concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Du
- Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, China.
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23
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Wang SH, Lin NH, Chou MD, Tsay SC, Welton EJ, Hsu NC, Giles DM, Liu GR, Holben BN. Profiling transboundary aerosols over Taiwan and assessing their radiative effects. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd013798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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24
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Barnaba F, Putaud JP, Gruening C, dell'Acqua A, Dos Santos S. Annual cycle in co-located in situ, total-column, and height-resolved aerosol observations in the Po Valley (Italy): Implications for ground-level particulate matter mass concentration estimation from remote sensing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd013002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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25
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Aerosol Optical Depth Measured at Different Coastal Boundary Layers and Its Links with Synoptic-Scale Features. REMOTE SENSING 2009. [DOI: 10.3390/rs1030557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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26
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Satheesh SK, Krishna Moorthy K, Suresh Babu S, Vinoj V, Nair VS, Naseema Beegum S, Dutt CBS, Alappattu DP, Kunhikrishnan PK. Vertical structure and horizontal gradients of aerosol extinction coefficients over coastal India inferred from airborne lidar measurements during the Integrated Campaign for Aerosol, Gases and Radiation Budget (ICARB) field campaign. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jd011033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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27
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Pelon J, Mallet M, Mariscal A, Goloub P, Tanré D, Bou Karam D, Flamant C, Haywood J, Pospichal B, Victori S. Microlidar observations of biomass burning aerosol over Djougou (Benin) during African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis Special Observation Period 0: Dust and Biomass-Burning Experiment. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jd009976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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28
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He Q, Li C, Mao J, Lau AKH, Chu DA. Analysis of aerosol vertical distribution and variability in Hong Kong. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jd009778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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29
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Massie ST, Heymsfield A, Schmitt C, Müller D, Seifert P. Aerosol indirect effects as a function of cloud top pressure. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd007383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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30
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Ramana MV, Ramanathan V. Abrupt transition from natural to anthropogenic aerosol radiative forcing: Observations at the ABC-Maldives Climate Observatory. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd007063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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31
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Schmid B, Ferrare R, Flynn C, Elleman R, Covert D, Strawa A, Welton E, Turner D, Jonsson H, Redemann J, Eilers J, Ricci K, Hallar AG, Clayton M, Michalsky J, Smirnov A, Holben B, Barnard J. How well do state-of-the-art techniques measuring the vertical profile of tropospheric aerosol extinction compare? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/2005jd005837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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32
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Quinn PK, Bates TS. Regional aerosol properties: Comparisons of boundary layer measurements from ACE 1, ACE 2, Aerosols99, INDOEX, ACE Asia, TARFOX, and NEAQS. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1029/2004jd004755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia K. Quinn
- Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, NOAA; Seattle Washington USA
| | - Timothy S. Bates
- Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, NOAA; Seattle Washington USA
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33
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Kovalev VA, Newton J, Wold C, Hao WM. Simple algorithm to determine the near-edge smoke boundaries with scanning lidar. APPLIED OPTICS 2005; 44:1761-1768. [PMID: 15813280 DOI: 10.1364/ao.44.001761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
We propose a modified algorithm for the gradient method to determine the near-edge smoke plume boundaries using backscatter signals of a scanning lidar. The running derivative of the ratio of the signal standard deviation (STD) to the accumulated sum of the STD is calculated, and the location of the global maximum of this function is found. No empirical criteria are required to determine smoke boundaries; thus the algorithm can be used without a priori selection of threshold values. The modified gradient method is not sensitive to the signal random noise at the far end of the lidar measurement range. Experimental data obtained with the Fire Sciences Laboratory lidar during routine prescribed fires in Montana were used to test the algorithm. Analysis results are presented that demonstrate the robustness of this algorithm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir A Kovalev
- Fire Sciences Laboratory, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 8089, Missoula, Montana 59807, USA.
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34
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Cattrall C. Variability of aerosol and spectral lidar and backscatter and extinction ratios of key aerosol types derived from selected Aerosol Robotic Network locations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1029/2004jd005124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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35
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36
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Quinn PK. Aerosol optical properties measured on board theRonald H. Brownduring ACE-Asia as a function of aerosol chemical composition and source region. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1029/2003jd004010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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37
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Campbell JR, Welton EJ, Spinhirne JD, Ji Q, Tsay SC, Piketh SJ, Barenbrug M, Holben BN. Micropulse lidar observations of tropospheric aerosols over northeastern South Africa during the ARREX and SAFARI 2000 dry season experiments. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2002jd002563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ellsworth J. Welton
- Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology Center; University of Maryland; Baltimore County Maryland USA
| | | | - Qiang Ji
- Science Systems and Applications, Inc.; Greenbelt Maryland USA
| | - Si-Chee Tsay
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; Greenbelt Maryland USA
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38
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Livingston JM. Airborne Sun photometer measurements of aerosol optical depth and columnar water vapor during the Puerto Rico Dust Experiment and comparison with land, aircraft, and satellite measurements. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2002jd002520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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39
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Reid JS. Analysis of measurements of Saharan dust by airborne and ground-based remote sensing methods during the Puerto Rico Dust Experiment (PRIDE). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2002jd002493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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40
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Franke K. Optical properties of the Indo-Asian haze layer over the tropical Indian Ocean. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2002jd002473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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41
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Burkert J. Trace gas and radical diurnal behavior in the marine boundary layer during INDOEX 1999. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2002jd002790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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42
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Wang J. Geostationary satellite retrievals of aerosol optical thickness during ACE-Asia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2003jd003580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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43
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Sheridan PJ. Spatial variability of submicrometer aerosol radiative properties over the Indian Ocean during INDOEX. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1029/2000jd000166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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44
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Pelon J. Characterization of aerosol spatial distribution and optical properties over the Indian Ocean from airborne LIDAR and radiometry during INDOEX'99. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1029/2001jd000402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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