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Nowack P, Ceppi P, Davis SM, Chiodo G, Ball W, Diallo MA, Hassler B, Jia Y, Keeble J, Joshi M. Response of stratospheric water vapour to warming constrained by satellite observations. NATURE GEOSCIENCE 2023; 16:577-583. [PMID: 37441270 PMCID: PMC10333120 DOI: 10.1038/s41561-023-01183-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Future increases in stratospheric water vapour risk amplifying climate change and slowing down the recovery of the ozone layer. However, state-of-the-art climate models strongly disagree on the magnitude of these increases under global warming. Uncertainty primarily arises from the complex processes leading to dehydration of air during its tropical ascent into the stratosphere. Here we derive an observational constraint on this longstanding uncertainty. We use a statistical-learning approach to infer historical co-variations between the atmospheric temperature structure and tropical lower stratospheric water vapour concentrations. For climate models, we demonstrate that these historically constrained relationships are highly predictive of the water vapour response to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide. We obtain an observationally constrained range for stratospheric water vapour changes per degree of global warming of 0.31 ± 0.39 ppmv K-1. Across 61 climate models, we find that a large fraction of future model projections are inconsistent with observational evidence. In particular, frequently projected strong increases (>1 ppmv K-1) are highly unlikely. Our constraint represents a 50% decrease in the 95th percentile of the climate model uncertainty distribution, which has implications for surface warming, ozone recovery and the tropospheric circulation response under climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peer Nowack
- Climatic Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
- Grantham Institute and Department of Physics, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Data Science Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Institute of Theoretical Informatics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Paulo Ceppi
- Grantham Institute and Department of Physics, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | - Gabriel Chiodo
- Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Will Ball
- Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
- Physikalisch-Meteorologisches Observatorium Davos World Radiation Centre, Davos, Switzerland
| | - Mohamadou A. Diallo
- Institute of Energy and Climate Research, Stratosphere (IEK-7), Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Birgit Hassler
- Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany
| | - Yue Jia
- NOAA Chemical Sciences Laboratory, Boulder, CO USA
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO USA
| | - James Keeble
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- National Centre for Atmospheric Science (NCAS), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Manoj Joshi
- Climatic Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
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Simulations of Water Vapor and Clouds on Rapidly Rotating and Tidally Locked Planets: A 3D Model Intercomparison. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab09f1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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3
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The Impact of Cloud Radiative Effects on the Tropical Tropopause Layer Temperatures. ATMOSPHERE 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos9100377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
A single-column radiative-convective model (RCM) is a useful tool to investigate the physical processes that determine the tropical tropopause layer (TTL) temperature structures. Previous studies on the TTL using the RCMs, however, omitted the cloud radiative effects. In this study, we examine the impact of cloud radiative effects on the simulated TTL temperatures using an RCM. We derive the cloud radiative effects based on satellite observations, which show heating rates in the troposphere but cooling rates in the stratosphere. We find that the cloud radiative effect warms the TTL by as much as 2 K but cools the lower stratosphere by as much as −1.5 K, resulting in a thicker TTL. With (without) considering cloud radiative effects, we obtain a convection top of ≈167 hPa (≈150 hPa) with a temperature of ≈213 K (≈209 K), and a cold point at ≈87 hPa (≈94 hPa) with a temperature of ≈204 K (≈204 K). Therefore, the cloud radiative effects widen the TTL by both lowering the convection-top height and enhancing the cold-point height. We also examine the impact of TTL cirrus radiative effects on the RCM-simulated temperatures. We find that the TTL cirrus warms the TTL with a maximum temperature increase of ≈1.3 K near 110 hPa.
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Garfinkel CI, Gordon A, Oman LD, Li F, Davis S, Pawson S. Nonlinear response of tropical lower stratospheric temperature and water vapor to ENSO. ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 2018; 18:4597-4615. [PMID: 30008736 PMCID: PMC6041696 DOI: 10.5194/acp-18-4597-2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A series of simulations using the NASA Goddard Earth Observing System Chemistry-Climate Model are analyzed in order to assess interannual and sub-decadal variability in the tropical lower stratosphere over the past 35 years. The impact of El Niño-Southern Oscillation on temperature and water vapor in this region is nonlinear in boreal spring. While moderate El Niño events lead to cooling in this region, strong El Niño events lead to warming, even as the response of the large scale Brewer Dobson Circulation appears to scale nearly linearly with El Niño. This nonlinearity is shown to arise from the response in the Indo-West Pacific to El Niño: strong El Niño events lead to tropospheric warming extending into the tropical tropopause layer and up to the cold point in this region, where it allows for more water vapor to enter the stratosphere. The net effect is that both strong La Niña and strong El Niño events lead to enhanced entry water vapor and stratospheric moistening in boreal spring and early summer. These results lead to the following interpretation of the contribution of sea surface temperatures to the decline in water vapor from the late 1990s to the early 2000s: the very strong El Niño event in 1997/1998, followed by more than two consecutive years of La Niña, led to enhanced lower stratospheric water vapor. As this period ended in early 2001, entry water vapor concentrations declined. This effect accounts for approximately one-quarter of the observed drop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaim I Garfinkel
- The Fredy and Nadine Herrmann Institute of Earth Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Amit Gordon
- The Fredy and Nadine Herrmann Institute of Earth Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Luke D Oman
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA
| | - Feng Li
- Universities Space Research Association, Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Sean Davis
- NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Steven Pawson
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA
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Dessler AE, Ye H, Wang T, Schoeberl MR, Oman LD, Douglass AR, Butler AH, Rosenlof KH, Davis SM, Portmann RW. Transport of ice into the stratosphere and the humidification of the stratosphere over the 21 st century. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS 2016; 43:2323-2329. [PMID: 29551841 PMCID: PMC5854491 DOI: 10.1002/2016gl067991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Climate models predict that tropical lower-stratospheric humidity will increase as the climate warms. We examine this trend in two state-of-the-art chemistry-climate models. Under high greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, the stratospheric entry value of water vapor increases by ~1 part per million by volume (ppmv) over this century in both models. We show with trajectory runs driven by model meteorological fields that the warming tropical tropopause layer (TTL) explains 50-80% of this increase. The remainder is a consequence of trends in evaporation of ice convectively lofted into the TTL and lower stratosphere. Our results further show that, within the models we examined, ice lofting is primarily important on long time scales - on interannual time scales, TTL temperature variations explain most of the variations in lower stratospheric humidity. Assessing the ability of models to realistically represent ice-lofting processes should be a high priority in the modeling community.
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Affiliation(s)
- A E Dessler
- Dept. of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX
| | - H Ye
- Dept. of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX
| | - T Wang
- NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory / Caltech, Pasadena, CA
| | | | - L D Oman
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD
| | | | - A H Butler
- NOAA Earth System Research Lab, Boulder, CO
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, CO
| | | | - S M Davis
- NOAA Earth System Research Lab, Boulder, CO
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, CO
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Weigel K, Rozanov A, Azam F, Bramstedt K, Damadeo R, Eichmann KU, Gebhardt C, Hurst D, Kraemer M, Lossow S, Read W, Spelten N, Stiller GP, Walker KA, Weber M, Bovensmann H, Burrows JP. UTLS water vapour from SCIAMACHY limb measurementsV3.01 (2002-2012). ATMOSPHERIC MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 2016; 9:133-158. [PMID: 29263764 PMCID: PMC5734655 DOI: 10.5194/amt-9-133-2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The SCanning Imaging Absorption spectroMeter for Atmospheric CHartographY (SCIAMACHY) aboard the Envisat satellite provided measurements from August 2002 until April 2012. SCIAMACHY measured the scattered or direct sunlight using different observation geometries. The limb viewing geometry allows the retrieval of water vapour at about 10-25 km height from the near-infrared spectral range (1353-1410 nm). These data cover the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS), a region in the atmosphere which is of special interest for a variety of dynamical and chemical processes as well as for the radiative forcing. Here, the latest data version of water vapour (V3.01) from SCIAMACHY limb measurements is presented and validated by comparisons with data sets from other satellite and in situ measurements. Considering retrieval tests and the results of these comparisons, the V3.01 data are reliable from about 11 to 23 km and the best results are found in the middle of the profiles between about 14 and 20 km. Above 20 km in the extra tropics V3.01 is drier than all other data sets. Additionally, for altitudes above about 19 km, the vertical resolution of the retrieved profile is not sufficient to resolve signals with a short vertical structure like the tape recorder. Below 14 km, SCIAMACHY water vapour V3.01 is wetter than most collocated data sets, but the high variability of water vapour in the troposphere complicates the comparison. For 14-20 km height, the expected errors from the retrieval and simulations and the mean differences to collocated data sets are usually smaller than 10 % when the resolution of the SCIAMACHY data is taken into account. In general, the temporal changes agree well with collocated data sets except for the Northern Hemisphere extratropical stratosphere, where larger differences are observed. This indicates a possible drift in V3.01 most probably caused by the incomplete treatment of volcanic aerosols in the retrieval. In all other regions a good temporal stability is shown. In the tropical stratosphere an increase in water vapour is found between 2002 and 2012, which is in agreement with other satellite data sets for overlapping time periods.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Weigel
- Institute of Environmental Physics – IUP, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - A. Rozanov
- Institute of Environmental Physics – IUP, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - F. Azam
- Institute of Environmental Physics – IUP, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - K. Bramstedt
- Institute of Environmental Physics – IUP, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - R. Damadeo
- NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia, USA
| | - K.-U. Eichmann
- Institute of Environmental Physics – IUP, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - C. Gebhardt
- Institute of Environmental Physics – IUP, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - D. Hurst
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
- Global Monitoring Division, NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - M. Kraemer
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Institute for Energy and Climate Research – Stratosphere IEK-7, Jülich, Germany
| | - S. Lossow
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology – KIT, Institute for Meteorology and Climate Research – IMK, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - W. Read
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - N. Spelten
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Institute for Energy and Climate Research – Stratosphere IEK-7, Jülich, Germany
| | - G. P. Stiller
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology – KIT, Institute for Meteorology and Climate Research – IMK, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - K. A. Walker
- Department of Physics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - M. Weber
- Institute of Environmental Physics – IUP, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - H. Bovensmann
- Institute of Environmental Physics – IUP, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - J. P. Burrows
- Institute of Environmental Physics – IUP, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
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7
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Hegglin MI, Plummer DA, Shepherd TG, Scinocca JF, Anderson J, Froidevaux L, Funke B, Hurst D, Rozanov A, Urban J, von Clarmann T, Walker KA, Wang HJ, Tegtmeier S, Weigel K. Vertical structure of stratospheric water vapour trends derived from merged satellite data. NATURE GEOSCIENCE 2014; 7:768-776. [PMID: 29263751 PMCID: PMC5734650 DOI: 10.1038/ngeo2236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Stratospheric water vapour is a powerful greenhouse gas. The longest available record from balloon observations over Boulder, Colorado, USA shows increases in stratospheric water vapour concentrations that cannot be fully explained by observed changes in the main drivers, tropical tropopause temperatures and methane. Satellite observations could help resolve the issue, but constructing a reliable long-term data record from individual short satellite records is challenging. Here we present an approach to merge satellite data sets with the help of a chemistry-climate model nudged to observed meteorology. We use the models' water vapour as a transfer function between data sets that overcomes issues arising from instrument drift and short overlap periods. In the lower stratosphere, our water vapour record extends back to 1988 and water vapour concentrations largely follow tropical tropopause temperatures. Lower and mid-stratospheric long-term trends are negative, and the trends from Boulder are shown not to be globally representative. In the upper stratosphere, our record extends back to 1986 and shows positive long-term trends. The altitudinal differences in the trends are explained by methane oxidation together with a strengthened lower-stratospheric and a weakened upper-stratospheric circulation inferred by this analysis. Our results call into question previous estimates of surface radiative forcing based on presumed global long-term increases in water vapour concentrations in the lower stratosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I Hegglin
- University of Reading, Department of Meteorology, Reading RG6 6BB, UK
| | - D A Plummer
- Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3V6, Canada
| | - T G Shepherd
- University of Reading, Department of Meteorology, Reading RG6 6BB, UK
| | - J F Scinocca
- Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3V6, Canada
| | - J Anderson
- Hampton University, Atmospheric and Planetary Science, Hampton, Virginia 23668, USA
| | - L Froidevaux
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91020, USA
| | - B Funke
- Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia, Granada 18008, Spain
| | - D Hurst
- NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Divison, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - A Rozanov
- University of Bremen, Institute of Environmental Physics, Bremen 28334, Germany
| | - J Urban
- Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Earth and Space Sciences, Gothenburg, 412 96, Sweden
| | - T von Clarmann
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe 76021, Germany
| | - K A Walker
- University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 1A7, Canada
| | - H J Wang
- Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0340, USA
| | | | - K Weigel
- University of Bremen, Institute of Environmental Physics, Bremen 28334, Germany
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Ploeger F, Konopka P, Müller R, Fueglistaler S, Schmidt T, Manners JC, Grooß JU, Günther G, Forster PM, Riese M. Horizontal transport affecting trace gas seasonality in the Tropical Tropopause Layer (TTL). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2011jd017267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Hurst DF, Oltmans SJ, Vömel H, Rosenlof KH, Davis SM, Ray EA, Hall EG, Jordan AF. Stratospheric water vapor trends over Boulder, Colorado: Analysis of the 30 year Boulder record. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jd015065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Gettelman A, Hegglin MI, Son SW, Kim J, Fujiwara M, Birner T, Kremser S, Rex M, Añel JA, Akiyoshi H, Austin J, Bekki S, Braesike P, Brühl C, Butchart N, Chipperfield M, Dameris M, Dhomse S, Garny H, Hardiman SC, Jöckel P, Kinnison DE, Lamarque JF, Mancini E, Marchand M, Michou M, Morgenstern O, Pawson S, Pitari G, Plummer D, Pyle JA, Rozanov E, Scinocca J, Shepherd TG, Shibata K, Smale D, Teyssèdre H, Tian W. Multimodel assessment of the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere: Tropics and global trends. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd013638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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11
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Selkirk HB, Vömel H, Valverde Canossa JM, Pfister L, Diaz JA, Fernández W, Amador J, Stolz W, Peng GS. Detailed structure of the tropical upper troposphere and lower stratosphere as revealed by balloon sonde observations of water vapor, ozone, temperature, and winds during the NASA TCSP and TC4 campaigns. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd013209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Toon OB, Starr DO, Jensen EJ, Newman PA, Platnick S, Schoeberl MR, Wennberg PO, Wofsy SC, Kurylo MJ, Maring H, Jucks KW, Craig MS, Vasques MF, Pfister L, Rosenlof KH, Selkirk HB, Colarco PR, Kawa SR, Mace GG, Minnis P, Pickering KE. Planning, implementation, and first results of the Tropical Composition, Cloud and Climate Coupling Experiment (TC4). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd013073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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13
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Gettelman A, Lauritzen PH, Park M, Kay JE. Processes regulating short-lived species in the tropical tropopause layer. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd011785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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14
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Liu C, Zipser EJ. Implications of the day versus night differences of water vapor, carbon monoxide, and thin cloud observations near the tropical tropopause. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jd011524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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15
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Randel WJ, Shine KP, Austin J, Barnett J, Claud C, Gillett NP, Keckhut P, Langematz U, Lin R, Long C, Mears C, Miller A, Nash J, Seidel DJ, Thompson DWJ, Wu F, Yoden S. An update of observed stratospheric temperature trends. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jd010421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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16
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Gettelman A, Birner T. Insights into Tropical Tropopause Layer processes using global models. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jd008945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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17
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Dessler AE, Hanisco TF, Fueglistaler S. Effects of convective ice lofting on H2O and HDO in the tropical tropopause layer. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jd008609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Spackman JR, Weinstock EM, Anderson JG, Hurst DF, Jost HJ, Schauffler SM. Aircraft observations of rapid meridional transport from the tropical tropopause layer into the lowermost stratosphere: Implications for midlatitude ozone. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd007618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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19
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Garcia RR, Marsh DR, Kinnison DE, Boville BA, Sassi F. Simulation of secular trends in the middle atmosphere, 1950–2003. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd007485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 565] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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20
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MacKenzie AR, Schiller C, Peter T, Adriani A, Beuermann J, Bujok O, Cairo F, Corti T, DiDonfrancesco G, Gensch I, Kiemle C, Krämer M, Kröger C, Merkulov S, Oulanovsky A, Ravegnani F, Rohs S, Rudakov V, Salter P, Santacesaria V, Stefanutti L, Yushkov V. Tropopause and hygropause variability over the equatorial Indian Ocean during February and March 1999. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/2005jd006639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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21
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Randel WJ, Wu F, Vömel H, Nedoluha GE, Forster P. Decreases in stratospheric water vapor after 2001: Links to changes in the tropical tropopause and the Brewer-Dobson circulation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/2005jd006744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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