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Long WC, Swiney KM, Foy RJ. Direct, carryover, and maternal effects of ocean acidification on snow crab embryos and larvae. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0276360. [PMID: 37851644 PMCID: PMC10584120 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0276360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Ocean acidification, a decrease in ocean pH with increasing anthropogenic CO2 concentrations, is expected to affect many marine animals. To examine the effects of decreased pH on snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio), a commercial species in Alaska, we reared ovigerous females in one of three treatments: Ambient pH (~8.1), pH 7.8, and pH 7.5, through two annual reproductive cycles. Morphometric changes during development and hatching success were measured for embryos both years and calcification was measured for the adult females at the end of the 2-year experiment. Embryos and larvae analyzed in year one were from oocytes developed, fertilized, and extruded in situ, whereas embryos and larvae in year two were from oocytes developed, fertilized, and extruded under acidified conditions in the laboratory. In both years, larvae were exposed to the same pH treatments in a fully crossed experimental design. Starvation-survival, morphology, condition, and calcium/magnesium content were assessed for larvae. Embryo morphology during development, hatching success, and fecundity were unaffected by pH during both years. Percent calcium in adult females' carapaces did not differ among treatments at the end of the experiment. In the first year, starvation-survival of larvae reared at Ambient pH but hatched from embryos reared at reduced pH was lowered; however, the negative effect was eliminated when the larvae were reared at reduced pH. In the second year, there was no direct effect of either embryo or larval pH treatment, but larvae reared as embryos at reduced pH survived longer if reared at reduced pH. Treatment either did not affect other measured larval parameters, or effect sizes were small. The results from this two-year study suggest that snow crabs are well adapted to projected ocean pH levels within the next two centuries, although other life-history stages still need to be examined for sensitivity and potential interactive effects with increasing temperatures should be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Christopher Long
- Kodiak Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Kodiak, AK, United States of America
| | - Katherine M. Swiney
- Kodiak Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Kodiak, AK, United States of America
| | - Robert J. Foy
- Kodiak Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Kodiak, AK, United States of America
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Pathways between Climate, Fish, Fisheries, and Management: A Conceptual Integrated Ecosystem Management Approach. JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/jmse10030338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The abundance and distribution of marine fishes is influenced by environmental conditions, predator–prey relationships, multispecies interactions, and direct human impacts, such as fishing. The adaptive response of the system depends on its structure and the pathways that link environmental factors to the taxon in question. The “Star Diagram” is a socio-ecological model of marine ecosystems that depicts the general pathways between climate, fish, and fisheries, and their intersection with climate policy and resource management. We illustrate its use by identifying the key factors, pathways and drivers that influence walleye pollock, crab, and sockeye salmon, under a warming scenario on the eastern Bering Sea shelf. This approach predicts that all three species will see reduced populations under a long-term warming scenario. Going forward, the challenge to managers is to balance the magnitude of the effect of harvest and the adaptability of their management system, with the scale and degree of resilience and the behavioral, physiological, or evolutionary adaptation of the ecosystem and its constituents. The Star Diagram provides a novel conceptual construct that managers can use to visualize and integrate the various aspects of the system into a holistic, socio-ecological management framework.
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Stenseth NC, Payne MR, Bonsdorff E, Dankel DJ, Durant JM, Anderson LG, Armstrong CW, Blenckner T, Brakstad A, Dupont S, Eikeset AM, Goksøyr A, Jónsson S, Kuparinen A, Våge K, Österblom H, Paasche Ø. Attuning to a changing ocean. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:20363-20371. [PMID: 32817527 PMCID: PMC7456143 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1915352117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The ocean is a lifeline for human existence, but current practices risk severely undermining ocean sustainability. Present and future social-ecological challenges necessitate the maintenance and development of knowledge and action by stimulating collaboration among scientists and between science, policy, and practice. Here we explore not only how such collaborations have developed in the Nordic countries and adjacent seas but also how knowledge from these regions contributes to an understanding of how to obtain a sustainable ocean. Our collective experience may be summarized in three points: 1) In the absence of long-term observations, decision-making is subject to high risk arising from natural variability; 2) in the absence of established scientific organizations, advice to stakeholders often relies on a few advisors, making them prone to biased perceptions; and 3) in the absence of trust between policy makers and the science community, attuning to a changing ocean will be subject to arbitrary decision-making with unforeseen and negative ramifications. Underpinning these observations, we show that collaboration across scientific disciplines and stakeholders and between nations is a necessary condition for appropriate actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Chr Stenseth
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway;
- Centre for Coastal Research, Department of Natural Sciences, University of Agder, NO-4604 Kristiansand, Norway
| | - Mark R Payne
- Centre for Ocean Life, National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2920 Charlottenlund, Denmark
| | - Erik Bonsdorff
- Environmental and Marine Biology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Dorothy J Dankel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, NO-5020 Bergen, Norway
- Nordic Marine Think Tank, DK-4300 Holbæk, Denmark
| | - Joël M Durant
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Leif G Anderson
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, SE 40530 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Claire W Armstrong
- Norwegian College of Fishery Science, University of Tromsø-The Arctic University of Norway, NO-9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Thorsten Blenckner
- Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ailin Brakstad
- Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen, NO-5020 Bergen, Norway
- Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, NO-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | - Sam Dupont
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, SE-45178 Fiskebäckskil, Sweden
| | - Anne M Eikeset
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Anders Goksøyr
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, NO-5020 Bergen, Norway
- Institute of Marine Research, NO-5817 Bergen, Norway
| | - Steingrímur Jónsson
- Marine and Freshwater Research Institute, University of Akureyri, 600 Akureyri, Iceland
| | - Anna Kuparinen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, FI-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Kjetil Våge
- Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen, NO-5020 Bergen, Norway
- Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, NO-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | - Henrik Österblom
- Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Øyvind Paasche
- Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, NO-5007 Bergen, Norway
- Climate, Norwegian Research Center AS (NORCE), NO-5020 Bergen, Norway
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Spatial Variation in Aragonite Saturation State and the Influencing Factors in Jiaozhou Bay, China. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12030825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Both natural processes and human activities affect seawater calcium carbonate saturation state (Ωarag), while the mechanisms are still far from being clearly understood. This study analysed the seawater surface Ωarag during summer and winter in Jiaozhou Bay (JZB), China, based on two cruises observations performed in January and June 2017. The ranges of Ωarag values were 1.55~2.92 in summer and 1.62~2.15 in winter. Regression analyses were conducted to identify the drivers of the change of Ωarag distribution, and then the relative contributions of temperature, mixing processes and biological processes to the spatial differences in Ωarag were evaluated by introducing the difference between total alkalinity (TA) and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) as a proxy for Ωarag. The results showed that biological processes were the main factor affecting the spatial differences in Ωarag, with relative contributions of 70% in summer and 50% in winter. The contributions of temperature (25% in summer and 20% in winter) and the mixing processes (5% in summer and 30% in winter) were lower. The increasing urbanization in offshore areas can further worsen acidification, therefore environmental protection in both offshore and onshore is needed.
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Eukaryotic microbial richness increases with latitude and decreasing temperature in the Pacific Subarctic domain in late winter. Polar Biol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-017-2131-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Metabolic response of Arctic pteropods to ocean acidification and warming during the polar night/twilight phase in Kongsfjord (Spitsbergen). Polar Biol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-016-2044-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Remote Sensing of Sea Surface pCO2 in the Bering Sea in Summer Based on a Mechanistic Semi-Analytical Algorithm (MeSAA). REMOTE SENSING 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/rs8070558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Enzor LA, Place SP. Is warmer better? Decreased oxidative damage in notothenioid fish after long-term acclimation to multiple stressors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 217:3301-10. [PMID: 25013114 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.108431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Antarctic fish of the suborder Notothenioidei have evolved several unique adaptations to deal with subzero temperatures. However, these adaptations may come with physiological trade-offs, such as an increased susceptibility to oxidative damage. As such, the expected environmental perturbations brought on by global climate change have the potential to significantly increase the level of oxidative stress and cellular damage in these endemic fish. Previous single stressor studies of the notothenioids have shown they possess the capacity to acclimate to increased temperatures, but the cellular-level effects remain largely unknown. Additionally, there is little information on the ability of Antarctic fish to respond to ecologically relevant environmental changes where multiple variables change concomitantly. We have examined the potential synergistic effects that increased temperature and Ṗ(CO2) have on the level of protein damage in Trematomus bernacchii, Pagothenia borchgrevinki and Trematomus newnesi, and combined these measurements with changes in total enzymatic activity of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in order to gauge tissue-specific changes in antioxidant capacity. Our findings indicate that total SOD and CAT activity levels displayed only small changes across treatments and tissues. Short-term acclimation to decreased seawater pH and increased temperature resulted in significant increases in oxidative damage. Surprisingly, despite no significant change in antioxidant capacity, cellular damage returned to near-basal levels, and significantly decreased in T. bernacchii, after long-term acclimation. Overall, these data suggest that notothenioid fish currently maintain the antioxidant capacity necessary to offset predicted future ocean conditions, but it remains unclear whether this capacity comes with physiological trade-offs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Enzor
- University of South Carolina, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Sean P Place
- University of South Carolina, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
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Hinzman LD, Deal CJ, McGuire AD, Mernild SH, Polyakov IV, Walsh JE. Trajectory of the Arctic as an integrated system. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2013; 23:1837-68. [PMID: 24555312 DOI: 10.1890/11-1498.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Although much remains to be learned about the Arctic and its component processes, many of the most urgent scientific, engineering, and social questions can only be approached through a broader system perspective. Here, we address interactions between components of the Arctic system and assess feedbacks and the extent to which feedbacks (1) are now underway in the Arctic and (2) will shape the future trajectory of the Arctic system. We examine interdependent connections among atmospheric processes, oceanic processes, sea-ice dynamics, marine and terrestrial ecosystems, land surface stocks of carbon and water, glaciers and ice caps, and the Greenland ice sheet. Our emphasis on the interactions between components, both historical and anticipated, is targeted on the feedbacks, pathways, and processes that link these different components of the Arctic system. We present evidence that the physical components of the Arctic climate system are currently in extreme states, and that there is no indication that the system will deviate from this anomalous trajectory in the foreseeable future. The feedback for which the evidence of ongoing changes is most compelling is the surface albedo-temperature feedback, which is amplifying temperature changes over land (primarily in spring) and ocean (primarily in autumn-winter). Other feedbacks likely to emerge are those in which key processes include surface fluxes of trace gases, changes in the distribution of vegetation, changes in surface soil moisture, changes in atmospheric water vapor arising from higher temperatures and greater areas of open ocean, impacts of Arctic freshwater fluxes on the meridional overturning circulation of the ocean, and changes in Arctic clouds resulting from changes in water vapor content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larry D Hinzman
- International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, USA.
| | - Clara J Deal
- International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, USA
| | - A David McGuire
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, USA
| | | | - Igor V Polyakov
- International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, USA
| | - John E Walsh
- International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, USA
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Robbins LL, Wynn JG, Lisle JT, Yates KK, Knorr PO, Byrne RH, Liu X, Patsavas MC, Azetsu-Scott K, Takahashi T. Baseline monitoring of the western Arctic Ocean estimates 20% of Canadian basin surface waters are undersaturated with respect to aragonite. PLoS One 2013; 8:e73796. [PMID: 24040074 PMCID: PMC3770696 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine surface waters are being acidified due to uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide, resulting in surface ocean areas of undersaturation with respect to carbonate minerals, including aragonite. In the Arctic Ocean, acidification is expected to occur at an accelerated rate with respect to the global oceans, but a paucity of baseline data has limited our understanding of the extent of Arctic undersaturation and of regional variations in rates and causes. The lack of data has also hindered refinement of models aimed at projecting future trends of ocean acidification. Here, based on more than 34,000 data records collected in 2010 and 2011, we establish a baseline of inorganic carbon data (pH, total alkalinity, dissolved inorganic carbon, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, and aragonite saturation index) for the western Arctic Ocean. This data set documents aragonite undersaturation in ∼20% of the surface waters of the combined Canada and Makarov basins, an area characterized by recent acceleration of sea ice loss. Conservative tracer studies using stable oxygen isotopic data from 307 sites show that while the entire surface of this area receives abundant freshwater from meteoric sources, freshwater from sea ice melt is most closely linked to the areas of carbonate mineral undersaturation. These data link the Arctic Ocean’s largest area of aragonite undersaturation to sea ice melt and atmospheric CO2 absorption in areas of low buffering capacity. Some relatively supersaturated areas can be linked to localized biological activity. Collectively, these observations can be used to project trends of ocean acidification in higher latitude marine surface waters where inorganic carbon chemistry is largely influenced by sea ice meltwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa L. Robbins
- St. Petersburg Coastal and Marine Science Center, United States Geological Survey, St. Petersburg, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jonathan G. Wynn
- Department of Geology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - John T. Lisle
- St. Petersburg Coastal and Marine Science Center, United States Geological Survey, St. Petersburg, Florida, United States of America
| | - Kimberly K. Yates
- St. Petersburg Coastal and Marine Science Center, United States Geological Survey, St. Petersburg, Florida, United States of America
| | - Paul O. Knorr
- St. Petersburg Coastal and Marine Science Center, United States Geological Survey, St. Petersburg, Florida, United States of America
| | - Robert H. Byrne
- College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida, United States of America
| | - Xuewu Liu
- College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida, United States of America
| | - Mark C. Patsavas
- College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida, United States of America
| | - Kumiko Azetsu-Scott
- Ocean Sciences Division, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Taro Takahashi
- Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, New York, United States of America
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Christopher Long W, Swiney KM, Foy RJ. Effects of ocean acidification on the embryos and larvae of red king crab, Paralithodes camtschaticus. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2013; 69:38-47. [PMID: 23434384 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The effects of the decline in ocean pH, known as ocean acidification, on marine species are not well understood. To test the effects on embryos and larvae of red king crab, Paralithodes camtschaticus, ovigerous crab and their larvae were held in CO2-acidified (pH 7.7) and control (ambient; pH 8.0) seawater during development. Morphometrics, hatch duration, fecundity, survival, mineral content, and condition were measured. Acidified embryos had 4% larger eyes and 5% smaller yolks, while mean hatch duration was 33% longer and female fecundity was unaffected. Acidified embryos also resulted in 4% longer larvae while acidified larvae had lower survival. Calcium content of both larvae and female carapaces after molting increased by 5% and 19%, respectively. Although ocean acidification may increase larval size and calcium content, the implications of this are unclear and decreased survival is likely to harm red king crab populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Christopher Long
- NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, Resource Assessment and Conservation Engineering Division, Kodiak Laboratory, 301 Research Ct., Kodiak, AK 99615, USA.
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Effects of ocean acidification on juvenile red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus) and Tanner crab (Chionoecetes bairdi) growth, condition, calcification, and survival. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60959. [PMID: 23593357 PMCID: PMC3617201 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocean acidification, a decrease in the pH in marine waters associated with rising atmospheric CO2 levels, is a serious threat to marine ecosystems. In this paper, we determine the effects of long-term exposure to near-future levels of ocean acidification on the growth, condition, calcification, and survival of juvenile red king crabs, Paralithodes camtschaticus, and Tanner crabs, Chionoecetes bairdi. Juveniles were reared in individual containers for nearly 200 days in flowing control (pH 8.0), pH 7.8, and pH 7.5 seawater at ambient temperatures (range 4.4–11.9 °C). In both species, survival decreased with pH, with 100% mortality of red king crabs occurring after 95 days in pH 7.5 water. Though the morphology of neither species was affected by acidification, both species grew slower in acidified water. At the end of the experiment, calcium concentration was measured in each crab and the dry mass and condition index of each crab were determined. Ocean acidification did not affect the calcium content of red king crab but did decrease the condition index, while it had the opposite effect on Tanner crabs, decreasing calcium content but leaving the condition index unchanged. This suggests that red king crab may be able to maintain calcification rates, but at a high energetic cost. The decrease in survival and growth of each species is likely to have a serious negative effect on their populations in the absence of evolutionary adaptation or acclimatization over the coming decades.
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Grebmeier JM. Shifting patterns of life in the Pacific Arctic and sub-Arctic seas. ANNUAL REVIEW OF MARINE SCIENCE 2012; 4:63-78. [PMID: 22457969 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-marine-120710-100926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Recent changes in the timing of sea ice formation and retreat, along with increasing seawater temperatures, are driving shifts in marine species composition that may signal marine ecosystem reorganization in the Pacific Arctic sector. Interannual variability in seasonal sea ice retreat in the northern Bering Sea has been observed over the past decade; north of the Bering Strait, the Chukchi Sea ecosystem has had consistent earlier spring sea ice retreat and later fall sea ice formation. The latitudinal gradient in sea ice persistence, water column chlorophyll, and carbon export to the sediments has a direct impact on ecosystem structure in this Arctic/sub-Arctic complex. Large-scale decadal patterns in the benthic biological system are driven by sea ice extent, hydrographic forcing, and export production that influences benthic processes. Shifts in species composition and northward faunal range expansions indicate a changing system. The shifting patterns of life and change in key biological processes have the potential for a system-wide reorganization of the marine ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline M Grebmeier
- Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Solomnons, Maryland 20688, USA.
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Richards R, Chaloupka M, Sanò M, Tomlinson R. Modelling the effects of ‘coastal’ acidification on copper speciation. Ecol Modell 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2011.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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