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Minganti D, Chabrillat S, Errera Q, Prignon M, Kinnison DE, Garcia RR, Abalos M, Alsing J, Schneider M, Smale D, Jones N, Mahieu E. Evaluation of the N 2O Rate of Change to Understand the Stratospheric Brewer-Dobson Circulation in a Chemistry-Climate Model. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. ATMOSPHERES : JGR 2022; 127:e2021JD036390. [PMID: 36589523 PMCID: PMC9788151 DOI: 10.1029/2021jd036390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The Brewer-Dobson Circulation (BDC) determines the distribution of long-lived tracers in the stratosphere; therefore, their changes can be used to diagnose changes in the BDC. We evaluate decadal (2005-2018) trends of nitrous oxide (N2O) in two versions of the Whole Atmosphere Chemistry-Climate Model (WACCM) by comparing them with measurements from four Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) ground-based instruments, the Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment Fourier Transform Spectrometer (ACE-FTS), and with a chemistry-transport model (CTM) driven by four different reanalyses. The limited sensitivity of the FTIR instruments can hide negative N2O trends in the mid-stratosphere because of the large increase in the lowermost stratosphere. When applying ACE-FTS measurement sampling on model datasets, the reanalyses from the European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF) compare best with ACE-FTS, but the N2O trends are consistently exaggerated. The N2O trends obtained with WACCM disagree with those obtained from ACE-FTS, but the new WACCM version performs better than the previous above the Southern Hemisphere in the stratosphere. Model sensitivity tests show that the decadal N2O trends reflect changes in the stratospheric transport. We further investigate the N2O Transformed Eulerian Mean (TEM) budget in WACCM and in the CTM simulation driven by the latest ECMWF reanalysis. The TEM analysis shows that enhanced advection affects the stratospheric N2O trends in the Tropics. While no ideal observational dataset currently exists, this model study of N2O trends still provides new insights about the BDC and its changes because of the contribution from relevant sensitivity tests and the TEM analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Minganti
- Royal Belgian Institute for Space AeronomyBIRA‐IASBBrusselsBelgium
| | - Simon Chabrillat
- Royal Belgian Institute for Space AeronomyBIRA‐IASBBrusselsBelgium
| | - Quentin Errera
- Royal Belgian Institute for Space AeronomyBIRA‐IASBBrusselsBelgium
| | - Maxime Prignon
- Institute of Astrophysics and GeophysicsUR SPHERESUniversity of LiègeLiègeBelgium
- Now at: Department of Earth, Space and EnvironmentChalmers University of TechnologyGothenburgSweden
| | | | | | | | - Justin Alsing
- Oskar Klein Centre for Cosmoparticle PhysicsDepartment of PhysicsStockholm UniversityStockholmSweden
- Imperial Centre for Inference and CosmologyDepartment of PhysicsImperial College LondonBlackett LaboratoryLondonUK
| | - Matthias Schneider
- Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research (IMK‐ASF)Karlsruhe Institute of TechnologyKarlsruheGermany
| | - Dan Smale
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric ResearchLauderNew Zealand
| | - Nicholas Jones
- School of ChemistryUniversity of WollongongWollongongAustralia
| | - Emmanuel Mahieu
- Institute of Astrophysics and GeophysicsUR SPHERESUniversity of LiègeLiègeBelgium
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2
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Linz M, Plumb RA, Gerber EP, Haenel FJ, Stiller G, Kinnison DE, Ming A, Neu JL. The strength of the meridional overturning circulation of the stratosphere. NATURE GEOSCIENCE 2017; 10:663-667. [PMID: 28966661 PMCID: PMC5619637 DOI: 10.1038/ngeo3013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of gases such as ozone and water vapour in the stratosphere - which affect surface climate - is influenced by the meridional overturning of mass in the stratosphere, the Brewer-Dobson circulation. However, observation-based estimates of its global strength are difficult to obtain. Here we present two calculations of the mean strength of the meridional overturning of the stratosphere. We analyze satellite data that document the global diabatic circulation between 2007- 2011, and compare these to three re-analysis data sets and to simulations with a state-of-the-art chemistry-climate model. Using measurements of sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrous oxide, we calculate the global mean diabatic overturning mass flux throughout the stratosphere. In the lower stratosphere, these two estimates agree, and at a potential temperature level of 460 K (about 20 km or 60 hPa in tropics), the global circulation strength is 6.3-7.6 × 109 kg/s. Higher in the atmosphere, only the SF6-based estimate is available, and it diverges from the re-analysis data and simulations. Interpretation of the SF6 data-based estimate is limited because of a mesospheric sink of SF6; however, the reanalyses also differ substantially from each other. We conclude that the uncertainty in the mean meridional overturning circulation strength at upper levels of the stratosphere amounts to at least 100 %.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianna Linz
- Correspondence and material requests should be addressed to Marianna Linz,
| | - R. Alan Plumb
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Edwin P. Gerber
- Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Florian J. Haenel
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Gabriele Stiller
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Douglas E. Kinnison
- Atmospheric Chemistry Observations and Modeling Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Alison Ming
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jessica L. Neu
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
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3
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Impact of Stratospheric Volcanic Aerosols on Age-of-Air and Transport of Long-Lived Species. ATMOSPHERE 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos7110149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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4
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Oman LD, Douglass AR, Salawitch RJ, Canty TP, Ziemke JR, Manyin M. The Effect of Representing Bromine from VSLS on the Simulation and Evolution of Antarctic Ozone. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS 2016; 43:9869-9876. [PMID: 29551840 PMCID: PMC5854488 DOI: 10.1002/2016gl070471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
We use the Goddard Earth Observing System Chemistry-Climate Model (GEOSCCM), a contributor to both the 2010 and 2014 WMO Ozone Assessment Reports, to show that inclusion of 5 parts per trillion (ppt) of stratospheric bromine (Bry) from very short-lived substances (VSLS) is responsible for about a decade delay in ozone hole recovery. These results partially explain the significantly later recovery of Antarctic ozone noted in the 2014 report, as bromine from VSLS was not included in the 2010 Assessment. We show multiple lines of evidence that simulations that account for VSLS Bry are in better agreement with both total column BrO and the seasonal evolution of Antarctic ozone reported by the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on NASA's Aura satellite. In addition, the near zero ozone levels observed in the deep Antarctic lower stratospheric polar vortex are only reproduced in a simulation that includes this Bry source from VSLS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke D. Oman
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA
| | | | | | | | - Jerald R. Ziemke
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA
- Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Michael Manyin
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA
- Science Systems and Applications, Inc., Lanham, MD, USA
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5
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Geller MA, Zhou T, Shindell D, Ruedy R, Aleinov I, Nazarenko L, Tausnev NL, Kelley M, Sun S, Cheng Y, Field RD, Faluvegi G. Modeling the QBO-Improvements resulting from higher-model vertical resolution. JOURNAL OF ADVANCES IN MODELING EARTH SYSTEMS 2016; 8:1092-1105. [PMID: 27917258 PMCID: PMC5114865 DOI: 10.1002/2016ms000699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Using the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) climate model, it is shown that with proper choice of the gravity wave momentum flux entering the stratosphere and relatively fine vertical layering of at least 500 m in the upper troposphere-lower stratosphere (UTLS), a realistic stratospheric quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) is modeled with the proper period, amplitude, and structure down to tropopause levels. It is furthermore shown that the specified gravity wave momentum flux controls the QBO period whereas the width of the gravity wave momentum flux phase speed spectrum controls the QBO amplitude. Fine vertical layering is required for the proper downward extension to tropopause levels as this permits wave-mean flow interactions in the UTLS region to be resolved in the model. When vertical resolution is increased from 1000 to 500 m, the modeled QBO modulation of the tropical tropopause temperatures increasingly approach that from observations, and the "tape recorder" of stratospheric water vapor also approaches the observed. The transport characteristics of our GISS models are assessed using age-of-air and N2O diagnostics, and it is shown that some of the deficiencies in model transport that have been noted in previous GISS models are greatly improved for all of our tested model vertical resolutions. More realistic tropical-extratropical transport isolation, commonly referred to as the "tropical pipe," results from the finer vertical model layering required to generate a realistic QBO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin A. Geller
- School of Marine and Atmospheric SciencesStony Brook UniversityStony BrookNew YorkUSA
| | - Tiehan Zhou
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - D. Shindell
- Earth and Ocean SciencesNicholas School of the Environment, Duke UniversityDurhamNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - R. Ruedy
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Trinnovim LLCNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - I. Aleinov
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - L. Nazarenko
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - N. L. Tausnev
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Trinnovim LLCNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - M. Kelley
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Trinnovim LLCNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - S. Sun
- NOAA/Earth System Research LaboratoryBoulderColoradoUSA
| | - Y. Cheng
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - R. D. Field
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Department of Applied Physics and Applied MathematicsColumbia UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - G. Faluvegi
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
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Aquila V, Swartz WH, Waugh DW, Colarco PR, Pawson S, Polvani LM, Stolarski RS. Isolating the roles of different forcing agents in global stratospheric temperature changes using model integrations with incrementally added single forcings. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. ATMOSPHERES : JGR 2016; 121:8067-8082. [PMID: 29593948 PMCID: PMC5868970 DOI: 10.1002/2015jd023841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Satellite instruments show a cooling of global stratospheric temperatures over the whole data record (1979-2014). This cooling is not linear, and includes two descending steps in the early 1980s and mid-1990s. The 1979-1995 period is characterized by increasing concentrations of ozone depleting substances (ODS) and by the two major volcanic eruptions of El Chichón (1982) and Mount Pinatubo (1991). The 1995-present period is characterized by decreasing ODS concentrations and by the absence of major volcanic eruptions. Greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations increase over the whole time period. In order to isolate the roles of different forcing agents in the global stratospheric temperature changes, we performed a set of AMIP-style simulations using the NASA Goddard Earth Observing System Chemistry-Climate Model (GEOSCCM). We find that in our model simulations the cooling of the stratosphere from 1979 to present is mostly driven by changes in GHG concentrations in the middle and upper stratosphere and by GHG and ODS changes in the lower stratosphere. While the cooling trend caused by increasing GHGs is roughly constant over the satellite era, changing ODS concentrations cause a significant stratospheric cooling only up to the mid-1990s, when they start to decrease because of the implementation of the Montreal Protocol. Sporadic volcanic events and the solar cycle have a distinct signature in the time series of stratospheric temperature anomalies but do not play a statistically significant role in the long-term trends from 1979 to 2014. Several factors combine to produce the step-like behavior in the stratospheric temperatures: in the lower stratosphere, the flattening starting in the mid 1990's is due to the decrease in ozone depleting substances; Mount Pinatubo and the solar cycle cause the abrupt steps through the aerosol-associated warming and the volcanically induced ozone depletion. In the middle and upper stratosphere, changes in solar irradiance are largely responsible for the step-like behavior of global temperatures anomalies, together with volcanically induced ozone depletion and water vapor increases in the post-Pinatubo years.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Aquila
- Goddard Earth Science Technology & Research (GESTAR), Columbia, MD
- Johns Hopkins University, Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Baltimore, MD
- Laboratory for Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics (Code 614), NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD
| | - W H Swartz
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD
| | - D W Waugh
- Johns Hopkins University, Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Baltimore, MD
| | - P R Colarco
- Laboratory for Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics (Code 614), NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD
| | - S Pawson
- Global Modeling and Assimilation Office, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD
| | | | - R S Stolarski
- Johns Hopkins University, Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Baltimore, MD
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7
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Stratospheric Aerosols from Major Volcanic Eruptions: A Composition-Climate Model Study of the Aerosol Cloud Dispersal and e-folding Time. ATMOSPHERE 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos7060075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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8
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Li F, Vikhliaev YV, Newman PA, Pawson S, Perlwitz J, Waugh DW, Douglass AR. Impacts of Interactive Stratospheric Chemistry on Antarctic and Southern Ocean Climate Change in the Goddard Earth Observing System - Version 5 (GEOS-5). JOURNAL OF CLIMATE 2016; 29:3199-3218. [PMID: 32742076 PMCID: PMC7394345 DOI: 10.1175/jcli-d-15-0572.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Stratospheric ozone depletion plays a major role in driving climate change in the Southern Hemisphere. To date, many climate models prescribe the stratospheric ozone layer's evolution using monthly and zonally averaged ozone fields. However, the prescribed ozone underestimates Antarctic ozone depletion and lacks zonal asymmetries. In this study we investigate the impact of using interactive stratospheric chemistry instead of prescribed ozone on climate change simulations of the Antarctic and Southern Ocean. Two sets of 1960-2010 ensemble transient simulations are conducted with the coupled ocean version of the Goddard Earth Observing System Model version 5: one with interactive stratospheric chemistry and the other with prescribed ozone derived from the same interactive simulations. The model's climatology is evaluated using observations and reanalysis. Comparison of the 1979-2010 climate trends between these two simulations reveals that interactive chemistry has important effects on climate change not only in the Antarctic stratosphere, troposphere and surface, but also in the Southern Ocean and Antarctic sea ice. Interactive chemistry causes stronger Antarctic lower stratosphere cooling and circumpolar westerly acceleration during November-December-January. It enhances stratosphere-troposphere coupling and leads to significantly larger tropospheric and surface westerly changes. The significantly stronger surface wind-stress trends cause larger increases of the Southern Ocean Meridional Overturning Circulation, leading to year-round stronger ocean warming near the surface and enhanced Antarctic sea ice decrease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Li
- Goddard Earth Sciences Technology and Research, Universities Space Research Association, Columbia, Maryland, USA
- Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA
| | - Yury V. Vikhliaev
- Goddard Earth Sciences Technology and Research, Universities Space Research Association, Columbia, Maryland, USA
- Global Modeling and Assimilation Office, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA
| | - Paul A. Newman
- Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA
| | - Steven Pawson
- Global Modeling and Assimilation Office, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA
| | - Judith Perlwitz
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, and Physical Sciences Division, NOAA/Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Darryn W. Waugh
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Anne R. Douglass
- Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA
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9
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Dessler AE, Ye H, Wang T, Schoeberl MR, Oman LD, Douglass AR, Butler AH, Rosenlof KH, Davis SM, Portmann RW. Transport of ice into the stratosphere and the humidification of the stratosphere over the 21 st century. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS 2016; 43:2323-2329. [PMID: 29551841 PMCID: PMC5854491 DOI: 10.1002/2016gl067991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Climate models predict that tropical lower-stratospheric humidity will increase as the climate warms. We examine this trend in two state-of-the-art chemistry-climate models. Under high greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, the stratospheric entry value of water vapor increases by ~1 part per million by volume (ppmv) over this century in both models. We show with trajectory runs driven by model meteorological fields that the warming tropical tropopause layer (TTL) explains 50-80% of this increase. The remainder is a consequence of trends in evaporation of ice convectively lofted into the TTL and lower stratosphere. Our results further show that, within the models we examined, ice lofting is primarily important on long time scales - on interannual time scales, TTL temperature variations explain most of the variations in lower stratospheric humidity. Assessing the ability of models to realistically represent ice-lofting processes should be a high priority in the modeling community.
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Affiliation(s)
- A E Dessler
- Dept. of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX
| | - H Ye
- Dept. of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX
| | - T Wang
- NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory / Caltech, Pasadena, CA
| | | | - L D Oman
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD
| | | | - A H Butler
- NOAA Earth System Research Lab, Boulder, CO
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, CO
| | | | - S M Davis
- NOAA Earth System Research Lab, Boulder, CO
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, CO
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10
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Prather MJ, Hsu J, DeLuca NM, Jackman CH, Oman LD, Douglass AR, Fleming EL, Strahan SE, Steenrod SD, Søvde OA, Isaksen ISA, Froidevaux L, Funke B. Measuring and modeling the lifetime of nitrous oxide including its variability. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. ATMOSPHERES : JGR 2015; 120:5693-5705. [PMID: 26900537 PMCID: PMC4744722 DOI: 10.1002/2015jd023267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Nitrous oxide lifetime is computed empirically from MLS satellite dataEmpirical N2O lifetimes compared with models including interannual variabilityResults improve values for present anthropogenic and preindustrial emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Prather
- Earth System Science University of California Irvine Irvine California USA
| | - Juno Hsu
- Earth System Science University of California Irvine Irvine California USA
| | - Nicole M DeLuca
- Earth System Science University of California Irvine Irvine California USA
| | | | - Luke D Oman
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt Maryland USA
| | | | - Eric L Fleming
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt Maryland USA;Science Systems and Applications, Inc. Lanham Maryland USA
| | | | - Stephen D Steenrod
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt Maryland USA; Goddard Earth Sciences Technology and Research Center Universities Space Research Association Columbia Maryland USA
| | - O Amund Søvde
- Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo Oslo Norway
| | | | | | - Bernd Funke
- Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, CSIC Granada Spain
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11
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Li F, Waugh DW, Douglass AR, Newman PA, Strahan SE, Ma J, Nielsen JE, Liang Q. Long-term changes in stratospheric age spectra in the 21st century in the Goddard Earth Observing System Chemistry-Climate Model (GEOSCCM). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2012jd017905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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12
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Douglass AR, Stolarski RS, Strahan SE, Oman LD. Understanding differences in upper stratospheric ozone response to changes in chlorine and temperature as computed using CCMVal-2 models. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2012jd017483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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