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Tham YJ, Sarnela N, Iyer S, Li Q, Angot H, Quéléver LLJ, Beck I, Laurila T, Beck LJ, Boyer M, Carmona-García J, Borrego-Sánchez A, Roca-Sanjuán D, Peräkylä O, Thakur RC, He XC, Zha Q, Howard D, Blomquist B, Archer SD, Bariteau L, Posman K, Hueber J, Helmig D, Jacobi HW, Junninen H, Kulmala M, Mahajan AS, Massling A, Skov H, Sipilä M, Francisco JS, Schmale J, Jokinen T, Saiz-Lopez A. Widespread detection of chlorine oxyacids in the Arctic atmosphere. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1769. [PMID: 36997509 PMCID: PMC10063661 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37387-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlorine radicals are strong atmospheric oxidants known to play an important role in the depletion of surface ozone and the degradation of methane in the Arctic troposphere. Initial oxidation processes of chlorine produce chlorine oxides, and it has been speculated that the final oxidation steps lead to the formation of chloric (HClO3) and perchloric (HClO4) acids, although these two species have not been detected in the atmosphere. Here, we present atmospheric observations of gas-phase HClO3 and HClO4. Significant levels of HClO3 were observed during springtime at Greenland (Villum Research Station), Ny-Ålesund research station and over the central Arctic Ocean, on-board research vessel Polarstern during the Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of the Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) campaign, with estimated concentrations up to 7 × 106 molecule cm-3. The increase in HClO3, concomitantly with that in HClO4, was linked to the increase in bromine levels. These observations indicated that bromine chemistry enhances the formation of OClO, which is subsequently oxidized into HClO3 and HClO4 by hydroxyl radicals. HClO3 and HClO4 are not photoactive and therefore their loss through heterogeneous uptake on aerosol and snow surfaces can function as a previously missing atmospheric sink for reactive chlorine, thereby reducing the chlorine-driven oxidation capacity in the Arctic boundary layer. Our study reveals additional chlorine species in the atmosphere, providing further insights into atmospheric chlorine cycling in the polar environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yee Jun Tham
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland.
- School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519082, China.
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Zhuhai, 519082, China.
| | - Nina Sarnela
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Siddharth Iyer
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Tampere University, Tampere, FI-3720, Finland
| | - Qinyi Li
- Department of Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate, Institute of Physical Chemistry Rocasolano, CSIC, Madrid, 28006, Spain
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hélène Angot
- Extreme Environments Research Laboratory, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, (EPFL) Valais Wallis, Sion, Switzerland
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, INRAE, IRD, Grenoble INP, IGE, 38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Lauriane L J Quéléver
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ivo Beck
- Extreme Environments Research Laboratory, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, (EPFL) Valais Wallis, Sion, Switzerland
| | - Tiia Laurila
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Lisa J Beck
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matthew Boyer
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Javier Carmona-García
- Institut de Ciència Molecular, Universitat de València, P.O. Box 22085, València, 46071, Spain
| | - Ana Borrego-Sánchez
- Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, CSIC-University of Granada, Av. de las Palmeras 4, 18100, Armilla, Granada, Spain
| | - Daniel Roca-Sanjuán
- Institut de Ciència Molecular, Universitat de València, P.O. Box 22085, València, 46071, Spain
| | - Otso Peräkylä
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Roseline C Thakur
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Xu-Cheng He
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Qiaozhi Zha
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Dean Howard
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
- Physical Sciences Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, CO, 80305, USA
| | - Byron Blomquist
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
- Physical Sciences Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, CO, 80305, USA
| | - Stephen D Archer
- Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, Maine, USA
| | - Ludovic Bariteau
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
- Physical Sciences Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, CO, 80305, USA
| | - Kevin Posman
- Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, Maine, USA
| | - Jacques Hueber
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
- JH Atmospheric Instrumentation Design, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Detlev Helmig
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
- Boulder Atmosphere Innovation Research LLC, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Hans-Werner Jacobi
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, INRAE, IRD, Grenoble INP, IGE, 38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Heikki Junninen
- Laboratory of Environmental Physics, Institute of Physics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Markku Kulmala
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anoop S Mahajan
- Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Pune, 411008, India
| | - Andreas Massling
- Department of Environmental Science, iClimate, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Henrik Skov
- Department of Environmental Science, iClimate, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Mikko Sipilä
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Joseph S Francisco
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Julia Schmale
- Extreme Environments Research Laboratory, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, (EPFL) Valais Wallis, Sion, Switzerland
| | - Tuija Jokinen
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland.
- Climate and Atmosphere Research Centre (CARE-C), the Cyprus Institute, P.O. Box 27456, Nicosia, CY-1645, Cyprus.
| | - Alfonso Saiz-Lopez
- Department of Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate, Institute of Physical Chemistry Rocasolano, CSIC, Madrid, 28006, Spain.
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Kumar KS, Kavitha S, Parameswari K, Sakunthala A, Sathishkumar P. Environmental occurrence, toxicity and remediation of perchlorate - A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 311:137017. [PMID: 36377118 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Perchlorate (ClO4-) comes under the class of contaminants called the emerging contaminants that will impact environment in the near future. A strong oxidizer by nature, perchlorate has received significant observation due to its occurrence, reactive nature, and persistence in varied environments such as surface water, groundwater, soil, and food. Perchlorate finds its use in number of industrial products ranging from missile fuel, fertilizers, and fireworks. Perchlorate exposure occurs when naturally occurring or manmade perchlorate in water or food is ingested. Perchlorate ingestion affects iodide absorption into the thyroid, thereby causing a decrease in the synthesis of thyroid hormone, a very crucial component needed for metabolism, neural development, and a number of other physiological functions in the body. Perchlorate remediation from ground water and drinking water is carried out through a series of physical-chemical techniques like ion (particle) transfer and reverse osmosis. However, the generation of waste through these processes are difficult to manage, so the need for alternative treatment methods occur. This review talks about the hybrid technologies that are currently researched and gaining momentum in the treatment of emerging contaminants, namely perchlorate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnan Suresh Kumar
- Department of Biotechnology, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, 641 114, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Subbiah Kavitha
- Department of Biotechnology, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, 641 114, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Kalivel Parameswari
- Department of Chemistry, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, 641 114, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ayyasamy Sakunthala
- Solid State Ionics Lab, Department of Applied Physics, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, 641 114, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Palanivel Sathishkumar
- Green Lab, Department of Prosthodontics, Saveetha Dental College & Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Chennai, India.
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Jiang S, Shi G, Cole-Dai J, An C, Sun B. Occurrence, latitudinal gradient and potential sources of perchlorate in the atmosphere across the hemispheres (31°N to 80°S). ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 156:106611. [PMID: 33975129 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Perchlorate (ClO4-) is harmful to human health, and knowledge on the levels and sources of natural ClO4- in different environments remains rather limited. Here, we investigate ClO4- in aerosol samples collected along a cross-hemisphere ship cruise between China and Antarctica and on a traverse between coastal East Antarctica and the ice sheet summit (Dome Argus). Perchlorate concentrations range from a few to a few hundred pg m-3. A clear latitudinal trend is found, with elevated ClO4- concentrations near populated areas and in the southern mid-high latitudes. Spatial patterns of atmospheric ClO4- over oceans near the landmasses support that terrestrial ClO4- is not transported efficiently over long distances. In the southern mid-latitudes, higher ClO4- concentrations in March than in November-December may be caused by significant stratospheric inputs in March. Perchlorate concentrations appear to be higher in the warm half than in the cold half of the year in the southern high latitudes, suggesting seasonal difference in main atmospheric sources. ClO4- may be formed in the reactions between chlorine free radical (Cl·) and ozone (O3) in the stratosphere when Antarctic ozone hole occurs during September-October. And the stratosphere-produced ClO4- is moved to the boundary layer in several months and may be responsible for the high ClO4- concentrations in the warm half of the year. Perchlorate produced by photochemical reactions between O3 and Cl· in the Antarctic stratosphere is likely responsible for the higher ClO4- concentrations in Antarctica than in Arctic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su Jiang
- MNR Key Laboratory for Polar Science, Polar Research Institute of China, Shanghai 200136, China
| | - Guitao Shi
- MNR Key Laboratory for Polar Science, Polar Research Institute of China, Shanghai 200136, China; Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science, School of Geographic Sciences and State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China.
| | - Jihong Cole-Dai
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, South Dakota State University, Avera Health and Science Center, Box 2202, Brookings, SD 57007, United States
| | - Chunlei An
- MNR Key Laboratory for Polar Science, Polar Research Institute of China, Shanghai 200136, China
| | - Bo Sun
- MNR Key Laboratory for Polar Science, Polar Research Institute of China, Shanghai 200136, China
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Niziński P, Błażewicz A, Kończyk J, Michalski R. Perchlorate - properties, toxicity and human health effects: an updated review. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2021; 36:199-222. [PMID: 32887207 DOI: 10.1515/reveh-2020-0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Interest in perchlorate as environmental pollutant has increased since 1997, when high concentrations have been found in the waters of the Colorado River, USA. Perchlorate is very persistent in nature and it is slowly degraded. Although harmful effects of large doses of perchlorate on thyroid function have been proven, the environmental effects are still unclear. The primary objective of the present review is to collect prevailing data of perchlorate exposure and to discuss its impact on human health. The results show that more than 50% of reviewed works found significant associations of perchlorate exposure and human health. This review consists of the following sections: general information of perchlorate sources, its properties and determination methods, role and sources in human body including food and water intake, overview of the scientific literature on the research on the effect of perchlorate on human health from 2010 to 2020. Finally, conclusions and recommendations on future perchlorate studies concerning human exposure are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Przemysław Niziński
- Chair of Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Błażewicz
- Chair of Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Joanna Kończyk
- Institute of Chemistry, Health and Food Sciences, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Czestochowa, Poland
| | - Rajmund Michalski
- Institute of Chemistry, Health and Food Sciences, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Czestochowa, Poland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, Polish Academy of Sciences, Zabrze, Poland
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Cao F, Jaunat J, Sturchio N, Cancès B, Morvan X, Devos A, Barbin V, Ollivier P. Worldwide occurrence and origin of perchlorate ion in waters: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 661:737-749. [PMID: 30684841 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Perchlorate (ClO4-) is a persistent water soluble oxyanion of growing environmental interest. Perchlorate contamination can be a health concern due to its ability to disrupt the use of iodine by the thyroid gland and the production of metabolic hormones. Its widespread presence in surface water and groundwater makes the aquatic environment a potential source of perchlorate exposure. However, the amount of published data on perchlorate origins and water contamination worldwide remains spatially limited. Here, we present an overview of research on perchlorate origins and occurrences in water, and the methodology to distinguish the different perchlorate sources based on isotope analysis. All published ranges of isotopic content in perchlorate from different sources are presented, including naturally occurring and man-made perchlorate source types, as well as the effects of isotope fractionation that accompanies biodegradation processes. An example of a case study in France is presented to emphasize the need for further research on this topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Cao
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne - GEGENAA - EA 3795, 2 esplanade Roland Garros, 51100 Reims, France.
| | - Jessy Jaunat
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne - GEGENAA - EA 3795, 2 esplanade Roland Garros, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Neil Sturchio
- Department of Geological Sciences, University of Delaware, 255 Academy Street/103 Penny Hall, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Benjamin Cancès
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne - GEGENAA - EA 3795, 2 esplanade Roland Garros, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Xavier Morvan
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne - GEGENAA - EA 3795, 2 esplanade Roland Garros, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Alain Devos
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne - GEGENAA - EA 3795, 2 esplanade Roland Garros, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Vincent Barbin
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne - GEGENAA - EA 3795, 2 esplanade Roland Garros, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Patrick Ollivier
- BRGM, 3 av. C. Guillemin, BP 36009, 45060 Orléans Cedex 2, France
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Valadbeigi Y, Kurtén T. Clustering of HClO 4 with Brønsted (H 2SO 4, HClO 4, HNO 3) and Lewis acids BX 3 (X = H, F, Cl, Br, OH): a DFT study. NEW J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9nj04694a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Interaction of HClO4 with Lewis and Brønsted acids leads to a variety of clusters exhibiting a wide range of acidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Younes Valadbeigi
- Department of Chemistry
- Faculty of Science
- Imam Khomeini International University
- Qazvin
- Iran
| | - Theo Kurtén
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Helsinki
- P.O. Box 55
- FI-00014 Helsinki
- Finland
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Furdui VI, Zheng J, Furdui A. Anthropogenic Perchlorate Increases since 1980 in the Canadian High Arctic. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:972-981. [PMID: 29271196 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
An ice core of 15.5 m retrieved from Agassiz Ice Cap (Nunavut, Canada) in April 2009 was analyzed for perchlorate to obtain a temporal trend in the recent decades and to better understand the factors affecting High Arctic deposition. The continuous record dated from 1936 to 2007, covers the periods prior to and during the major atmospheric releases of organic chlorine species that affected the stratospheric ozone levels. Concentrations and yearly fluxes of perchlorate and chloride showed a significant correlation for the 1940-1959 period, suggesting a predominant tropospheric formation by lightning. While concentration of chloride remained unchanged from 1940s until 2009, elevated levels of perchlorate were observed after 1979. A lack of significant increases in either sulfate or chloride between 1980 and 2001 suggests that the effect of volcanic activities on the perchlorate at the study site during this period could be insignificant. Therefore, the elevated perchlorate in the ice could most likely be attributed to anthropogenic activities that influenced perchlorate sources and formation mechanisms after 1979. Our results show that anthropogenic contribution could be responsible for 66% of perchlorate found in the ice. Although with some differences in trends and amounts, deposition rate found in this study is similar to those observed at Devon Island (Nunavut, Canada), Eclipse Icefield (Yukon, Canada) and Summit Station (Greenland). Methyl chloroform, a chlorinated solvent largely used after 1976, peaked in the atmosphere in 1990 and has a much shorter atmospheric life than chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This study proposes methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3) as the significant anthropogenic source of perchlorate in the Canadian High Arctic between 1980 and 2000, with HCFC-141b (Cl2FC-CH3), a relatively short-lived CFC probably responsible for a slower decrease in perchlorate deposition after the late 1990s. The presence of aerosols in the stratosphere appears to suppress perchlorate production after 1974. As both methyl chloroform and HCFC-141b had no new significant emissions after 2003, deposition of perchlorate in High Arctic is expected to remain at pre-1980 levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasile I Furdui
- Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change, 125 Resources Road, Toronto, Ontario M9P 3V6, Canada
| | - Jiancheng Zheng
- Geological Survey Canada, LMS, Natural Resources Canada , Ottawa, K1A 0E8, Canada
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Andreea Furdui
- Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change, 125 Resources Road, Toronto, Ontario M9P 3V6, Canada
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Yao L, Yang L, Chen J, Toda K, Wang X, Zhang J, Yamasaki D, Nakamura Y, Sui X, Zheng L, Wen L, Xu C, Wang W. Levels, indoor-outdoor relationships and exposure risks of airborne particle-associated perchlorate and chlorate in two urban areas in Eastern Asia. CHEMOSPHERE 2015; 135:31-37. [PMID: 25898387 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2014] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Indoor and outdoor concentrations of PM2.5-associated perchlorate (ClO4(-)) and chlorate (ClO3(-)) were investigated in Jinan, China, and size-resolved perchlorate and chlorate were studied in Kumamoto, Japan. The average outdoor PM2.5-associated concentrations of perchlorate and chlorate were 4.18 ng m(-3) and 2.82 ng m(-3), respectively, in Jinan. Perchlorate and chlorate were mainly distributed in fine particles, and their approximate PM2.5-associated concentrations were 0.04 ng m(-3) and 4.14 ng m(-3), respectively, in Kumamoto. The ratios of ClO3(-)/ClO4(-) ranged from 18.72 to 360.22 in Kumamoto and from 0.03 to 7.45 in Jinan. The highest concentration of perchlorate (173.76 ng m(-3)) was observed on Spring Festival Eve. This finding and the significant correlation between perchlorate and fireworks-related components (Cl(-) and K(+)) indicated that the fireworks display was a significant source of perchlorate in Jinan. The indoor concentrations of perchlorate and chlorate in Jinan were 3.54 ng m(-3) (range, 0.14-125.14 ng m(-3)) and 0.94 ng m(-3) (range, 0.10-1.80 ng m(-3)), respectively. In the absence of an indoor source of perchlorate, the occurrence of indoor concentrations higher than those found outdoors was a common effect of individual fireworks displays near the sampling sites, coupled with meteorological influences and poor indoor diffusion conditions. The exposure risks of perchlorate and chlorate indoors indicated that the potential risk of perchlorate exposure to children during fireworks displays is deserving of concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Yao
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Lingxiao Yang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China.
| | - Jianmin Chen
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP3), Fudan Tyndall Centre, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Kei Toda
- Department of Chemistry, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
| | - Xinfeng Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Junmei Zhang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Dai Yamasaki
- Department of Chemistry, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
| | - Yukihide Nakamura
- Department of Chemistry, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
| | - Xiao Sui
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Longfei Zheng
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Liang Wen
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Caihong Xu
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Wenxing Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
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Abstract
O₂-generating reactions are exceedingly rare in biology and difficult to mimic synthetically. Perchlorate-respiring bacteria enzymatically detoxify chlorite (ClO₂(-) ), the end product of the perchlorate (ClO(4)(-) ) respiratory pathway, by rapidly converting it to dioxygen (O₂) and chloride (Cl(-)). This reaction is catalyzed by a heme-containing protein, called chlorite dismutase (Cld), which bears no structural or sequence relationships with known peroxidases or other heme proteins and is part of a large family of proteins with more than one biochemical function. The original assumptions from the 1990s that perchlorate is not a natural product and that perchlorate respiration might be confined to a taxonomically narrow group of species have been called into question, as have the roles of perchlorate respiration and Cld-mediated reactions in the global biogeochemical cycle of chlorine. In this chapter, the chemistry and biochemistry of Cld-mediated O₂generation, as well as the biological and geochemical context of this extraordinary reaction, are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L DuBois
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59717, USA,
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Grantz DA, Burkey KO, Jackson WA, Vu HB, McGrath MT, Harvey G. Perchlorate content of plant foliage reflects a wide range of species-dependent accumulation but not ozone-induced biosynthesis. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2014; 184:690-696. [PMID: 23642565 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.03.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Revised: 03/23/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Perchlorate (ClO4(-)) interferes with uptake of iodide in humans. Emission inventories do not explain observed distributions. Ozone (O3) is implicated in the natural origin of ClO4(-), and has increased since pre-industrial times. O3 produces ClO4(-)in vitro from Cl(-), and plant tissues contain Cl(-) and redox reactions. We hypothesize that O3 exposure may induce plant synthesis of ClO4(-). We exposed contrasting crop species to environmentally relevant O3 concentrations. In the absence of O3 exposure, species exhibited a large range of ClO4(-) accumulation but there was no relationship between leaf ClO4(-) and O3, whether expressed as exposure or cumulative flux (dose). Older, senescing leaves accumulated more ClO4(-) than younger leaves. O3 exposed vegetation is not a source of environmental ClO4(-). There was evidence of enhanced ClO4(-) content in the soil surface at the highest O3 exposure, which could be a significant contributor to environmental ClO4(-).
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Grantz
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California at Riverside, Kearney Agricultural Center, 9240 South Riverbend Avenue, Parlier, CA 93648, USA.
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Rao B, Anderson TA, Redder A, Jackson WA. Perchlorate formation by ozone oxidation of aqueous chlorine/oxy-chlorine species: role of ClxOy radicals. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2010; 44:2961-2967. [PMID: 20345093 DOI: 10.1021/es903065f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The environmental occurrence of perchlorate (ClO4(-)) can be related to either natural or anthropogenic sources. Recent studies highlighted the ubiquitous occurrence of natural ClO4(-) in the environment including wet deposition in the United States. Limited studies have investigated potential mechanisms responsible for natural ClO4(-) production in the environment. These studies have neither addressed the influence of relevant reaction conditions nor have they evaluated the rates of ClO4(-) production. The purpose of this study was to determine the comparative yields and rates of ClO4(-) production from O3 mediated oxidation of Cl(-), OCl(-), ClO2(-), ClO3(-), and ClO2. The influence of reactant (O3 and ClOx(-)) concentration and pH were evaluated. The comparative rate and efficiency of ClO4(-) production is generally greater for higher oxidation states of Cl (2.7 to 0.5% for ClO2(-)/ClO2 and 0.02 to 0.005% for OCl(-)/HOCl oxidation) with the notable exception of ClO3(-) which does not react with O3. The very slow rate of ClO4(-) production from Cl(-) ( approximately 20 x 10(-9) mM min(-1)) even at elevated O3 and Cl(-) concentrations implies negligible potential for anthropogenic ClO4(-) formation in process units of water/wastewater systems that use O3 for treatment. Based on results of ClO4(-) formation from tested Cl species and available literature, we propose a potential formation pathway for ClO4(-) from Cl(-) with emphasis on the role of ClO2 and higher oxy-chlorine radicals/intermediates (e.g., Cl2O6) in its formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balaji Rao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1023, USA
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Catling DC, Claire MW, Zahnle KJ, Quinn RC, Clark BC, Hecht MH, Kounaves S. Atmospheric origins of perchlorate on Mars and in the Atacama. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009je003425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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14
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Sturchio NC, Caffee M, Beloso AD, Heraty LJ, Böhlke JK, Hatzinger PB, Jackson WA, Gu B, Heikoop JM, Dale M. Chlorine-36 as a tracer of perchlorate origin. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2009; 43:6934-6938. [PMID: 19806723 DOI: 10.1021/es9012195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Perchlorate (ClO4(-)) is ubiquitous in the environment. It is produced naturally by atmospheric photochemical reactions, and also is synthesized in large quantities for military, aerospace, and industrial applications. Nitrate-enriched salt deposits of the Atacama Desert (Chile) contain high concentrations of natural ClO4(-), and have been exported worldwide since the mid-1800s for use in agriculture. The widespread introduction of synthetic and agricultural ClO4(-) into the environment has contaminated numerous municipal water supplies. Stable isotope ratio measurements of Cl and O have been applied for discrimination of different ClO4(-) sources in the environment. This study explores the potential of 36Cl measurements for further improving the discrimination of ClO4(-) sources. Groundwater and desert soil samples from the southwestern United States (U.S.) contain ClO4(-) having high 36Cl abundances (36Cl/Cl = 3100 x 10(-15) to 28,800 x 10(-15)), compared with those from the Atacama Desert (36Cl/Cl = 0.9 x 10(-15) to 590 x 10(-15)) and synthetic ClO4(-) reagents and products (36Cl/Cl = 0.0 x 10(-15) to 40 x 10(-15)). In conjunction with stable Cl and O isotope ratios, 36Cl data provide a clear distinction among three principal ClO4(-) source types in the environment of the southwestern U.S.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil C Sturchio
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA.
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Kang N, Anderson TA, Jackson WA. Photochemical formation of perchlorate from aqueous oxychlorine anions. Anal Chim Acta 2006; 567:48-56. [PMID: 17723378 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.01.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2005] [Revised: 01/21/2006] [Accepted: 01/25/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Evidence of atmospherically produced perchlorate is being accumulated, yet information regarding its formation process is largely unknown. For the first time, the present study demonstrates that perchlorate can be generated as an end-product of photochemical transformation reactions of chlorine precursors such as aqueous salt solutions of hypochlorite, chlorite, and chlorate upon exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. For example, under exposure to UV light from photochemical reactor lamps at a peak wavelength of 253.7 nm for 7 days, the observed perchlorate concentrations were 5, 25, and 626 microg/L at initial chlorite concentrations of 100, 1000, and 10,000 mg/L, respectively. In addition, perchlorate was generated within 7 days from aqueous chlorite solutions at mid-latitude (33 degrees 59'N, 101 degrees 89'W) spring and summer solar radiation. Via UV radiation from the artificial lamps and sunlight, chlorite was converted to chloride (68%) and chlorate (32%) as end-products on the basis of molar percentage. However, perchlorate was not detected from aqueous chloride solutions at initial concentrations up to 10,000 mg/L under the experimental conditions. Relevant mechanistic pathways were proposed based on the fact that chlorine dioxide (as a primary intermediate) may play a significant role in phototransformation of the precursors leading to perchlorate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namgoo Kang
- Water Resources Center, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409-1023, USA
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Dasgupta PK, Martinelango PK, Jackson WA, Anderson TA, Tian K, Tock RW, Rajagopalan S. The origin of naturally occurring perchlorate: the role of atmospheric processes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2005; 39:1569-1575. [PMID: 15819211 DOI: 10.1021/es048612x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Perchlorate, an iodide uptake inhibitor, is increasingly being detected in new places and new matrices. Perchlorate contamination has been attributed largelyto the manufacture and use of ammonium perchlorate (the oxidizer in solid fuel rockets) and/or the earlier use of Chilean nitrate as fertilizer (approximately 0.1% perchlorate). However, there are regions such as the southern high plains (Texas Panhandle) where there is no clear historical or current evidence of the extensive presence of rocket fuel or Chilean fertilizer sources. The occurrence of easily measurable concentrations of perchlorate in such places is difficult to understand. In the southern high plains groundwater, perchlorate is better correlated with iodate, known to be of atmospheric origin, compared to any other species. We show that perchlorate is readily formed by a variety of simulated atmospheric processes. For example, it is formed from chloride aerosol by electrical discharge and by exposing aqueous chloride to high concentrations of ozone. We report that perchlorate is present in many rain and snow samples. This strongly suggests that some perchlorate is formed in the atmosphere and a natural perchlorate background of atmospheric origin should exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Purnendu K Dasgupta
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1061, USA.
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Bao H, Gu B. Natural perchlorate has a unique oxygen isotope signature. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2004; 38:5073-5077. [PMID: 15506201 DOI: 10.1021/es049516z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Perchlorate is known to be a minor component of the hyperarid Atacama Desert salts, and its origin has long been a subject of speculation. Here we report the first measurement of the triple-oxygen isotope ratios (18O/16O and 17O/16O) for both man-made perchlorate from commercial sources and natural perchlorate extracted from Atacama soils. We found that the delta 18O values (i.e., normalized 18O/ 16O ratios) of man-made perchlorate were at -18.4+/-1.2%, whereas natural perchlorate has a variable delta 18O value, ranging from -4.5% to -24.8%. The delta 18O and delta 17O values followed the bulk Earth's oxygen isotope fractionation line for man-made perchlorate, but all Atacama perchlorates deviated from this line, with a distinctly large and positive 170 anomaly ranging from +4.2% to +9.6%. These findings provide a tool for the identification and forensics of perchlorate contamination in the environment. Additionally, they confirm an early speculation that the oxidation of volatile chlorine by 03 and the formation of HClO4 can be a sink (albeit a minor one) for atmospheric chlorine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiming Bao
- Department of Geology & Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 , USA.
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Abstract
Low pressure flash thermolysis of different precursor molecules containing-ClO, -ClO3 or -OClO3 yield, when highly diluted in Ne or O2 and subsequent quenching of the products in a matrix at 5 or 15 K, ClOx (x = 1, 3, 4) radicals, respectively. If Ne or O2 gas is directed over solid ClO2 at -120 degrees C and the resulting gas mixtures are immediately deposited as a matrix, a high fraction of (OClO)2 is trapped. This enables recording of IR and UV spectra of weakly bonded (OClO)2 dimers and detailed studying of their photochemistry. For Ne or O2 matrix isolated ClO radicals the vibrational wavenumbers and electronic transitions are only slightly affected compared with the gas phase. In this study strong evidence is found for long lived ClO in the electronically excited 2 [symbol: see text] 1/2 state. A comprehensive IR study of Ne matrix isolated ClO3 (fundamentals at 1081, 905, 567, 476 cm-1) yield i) a reliable force field; ii) a OClO bond angle of alpha e = 113.8 +/- 1 degrees and iii) a ClO bond length of 148.5 +/- 2 pm in agreement with predicted data from quantum chemical calculations. The UV/Vis spectrum of ClO3 isolated in a Ne matrix (lambda max at 32,100 and 23,150 cm-1) agrees well with the photoelectron spectrum of ClO3- and theoretical predictions. The origin of the structured high energy absorption is at 22,696 cm-1 and three fundamentals (794, 498, 280 cm-1) are detected in the C2E state. By photolysis of ClO3 with visible light the complex ClO.O2 with ClO in the 2 [symbol: see text] 1/2 state is formed. In an extended spectroscopic study of the elusive ClO4 radical, isolated in a Ne or O2 matrix, three additional IR bands, a complete UV spectrum and a strong interaction with O2 are found. This leads to the conclusion that ClO4 exhibits C2v or Cs symmetry with a shallow potential minimum and forms with O2 the previously unknown peroxy radical O3ClO-O2. All these results are discussed in the context of recent developments in the chemistry and spectroscopy of the important and interesting ClOx (x = 1-4) family of radicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodion Kopitzky
- Fakultät 4, Anorganische Chemie Gerhard-Mercator Universität Duisburg, Lotharstrasse 1 47048 Duisburg, Germany
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin H. Weber
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Fullerton, California 92834
| | - Fu-Ming Tao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Fullerton, California 92834
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Froidevaux L, Waters JW, Read WG, Connell PS, Kinnison DE, Russell JM. Variations in the free chlorine content of the stratosphere (1991-1997): Anthropogenic, volcanic, and methane influences. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1029/1999jd901039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Bonne GP, Stimpfle RM, Cohen RC, Voss PB, Perkins KK, Anderson JG, Salawitch RJ, Elkins JW, Dutton GS, Jucks KW, Toon GC. An examination of the inorganic chlorine budget in the lower stratosphere. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1029/1999jd900996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Stimpfle RM, Cohen RC, Bonne GP, Voss PB, Perkins KK, Koch LC, Anderson JG, Salawitch RJ, Lloyd SA, Gao RS, Del Negro LA, Keim ER, Bui TP. The coupling of ClONO2, ClO, and NO2in the lower stratosphere from in situ observations using the NASA ER-2 aircraft. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1029/1999jd900288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Sen B, Osterman GB, Salawitch RJ, Toon GC, Margitan JJ, Blavier JF, Chang AY, May RD, Webster CR, Stimpfle RM, Bonne GP, Voss PB, Perkins KK, Anderson JG, Cohen RC, Elkins JW, Dutton GS, Hurst DF, Romashkin PA, Atlas EL, Schauffler SM, Loewenstein M. The budget and partitioning of stratospheric chlorine during the 1997 Arctic summer. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1029/1999jd900245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Svensson T, Nelander B, Bernhardsson A, Karlström G. Infrared Spectroscopic and ab Initio Study of HOOClO2. J Phys Chem A 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/jp990070w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Johnson MS, Hegelund F, Nelander B. The nu5 Band of HClO4. JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 1998; 190:269-273. [PMID: 9668019 DOI: 10.1006/jmsp.1998.7588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The high-resolution infrared spectrum of perchloric acid has been observed in the 700-750 cm-1 region using the infrared beamline at the MAX-I electron storage ring in Lund, Sweden. The spectrum displays extensive rotational structure due to a type a band and is assigned to nu5, the HO-ClO3 stretch. Approximately 1100 transitions in H35ClO4 and ca. 300 in H37ClO4 have been fitted using single subband analysis, generating constants for transitions having the same K. The origin of H35ClO4 K = 3t series is found to be 726.9971(4) cm-1. Rotationally resolved infrared line positions are now available for the identification of HClO4 in the atmosphere, which may be produced by the heterogeneous oxidation of chlorine containing species in the stratosphere. Copyright 1998 Academic Press.
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Affiliation(s)
- MS Johnson
- Chemical Center, University of Lund, Lund, S-221 00, Sweden
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Johnson MS, Nelander B. High-resolution gas phase spectroscopy with a synchrotron radiation source. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03185541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Abstract
Liquid and solid particles in polar stratospheric clouds are of central importance for the depletion of stratospheric ozone. Surface-catalyzed reactions on these particles, and diffusion-controlled processes in the bulk of the particles, convert halogens, which derive from compounds of mainly anthropogenic origin, from relatively inert reservoir species into forms that efficiently destroy ozone. The microphysics of these particles under cold stratospheric conditions is still uncertain in many respects, in particular concerning phase transitions such as freezing nucleation and deposition nucleation. Furthermore, there are indications that the rates of key heterogeneous reactions have not yet been established with sufficient accuracy to enable a reliable diagnosis of observed ozone losses by means of global models. The present paper reviews the current (late 1996) knowledge of the physico-chemistry of polar stratospheric clouds and evaluates the remaining uncertainties with respect to their ozone depletion potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Peter
- Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Postfach 3060, D-55020 Mainz, Germany
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Jaeglé L, Webster CR, May RD, Scott DC, Stimpfle RM, Kohn DW, Wennberg PO, Hanisco TF, Cohen RC, Proffitt MH, Kelly KK, Elkins J, Baumgardner D, Dye JE, Wilson JC, Pueschel RF, Chan KR, Salawitch RJ, Tuck AF, Hovde SJ, Yung YL. Evolution and stoichiometry of heterogeneous processing in the Antarctic stratosphere. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1029/97jd00935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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29
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Zhang R, Leu MT. Heterogeneous interaction of peroxyacetyl nitrate with liquid sulfuric acid. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1029/97jd00131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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