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Upadhyay A, Cao UMN, Hariharan A, Almansoori A, Tran SD. Gene Therapeutic Delivery to the Salivary Glands. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2023; 1436:55-68. [PMID: 36826746 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2023_766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
The salivary glands, exocrine glands in our body producing saliva, can be easily damaged by various factors. Radiation therapy and Sjogren's syndrome (a systemic autoimmune disease) are the two main causes of salivary gland damage, leading to a severe reduction in patients' quality of life. Gene transfer to the salivary glands has been considered a promising approach to treating the dysfunction. Gene therapy has long been applied to cure multiple diseases, including cancers, and hereditary and infectious diseases, which are proven to be safe and effective for the well-being of patients. The application of this treatment on salivary gland injuries has been studied for decades, yet its clinical progress is delayed. This chapter provides a coup d'oeil into gene transfer methods and various gene/vector types for salivary glands to help the new scientists and update established scientists on the progress that has been made during the past decades for the treatment of salivary gland disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshaya Upadhyay
- McGill Craniofacial Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Laboratory, Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Uyen M N Cao
- McGill Craniofacial Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Laboratory, Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Arvind Hariharan
- McGill Craniofacial Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Laboratory, Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Akram Almansoori
- McGill Craniofacial Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Laboratory, Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Simon D Tran
- McGill Craniofacial Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Laboratory, Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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Ishida N, Murata K, Morita T, Semba S, Nezu A, Tanimura A. Spontaneous calcium responses of SF2 rat dental epithelial cells stably expressing the calcium sensor G-GECO. Biomed Res 2021; 42:193-201. [PMID: 34544995 DOI: 10.2220/biomedres.42.193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Genetically-encoded calcium indicators such as G-GECO are useful for studying Ca2+ responses during long-term processes. In this study, we employed a lentiviral vector and established a rat dental epithelial cell line that stably expressed G-GECO (SF2-G-GECO). Ca2+ imaging analysis under cell culture conditions revealed that SF2-G-GECO cells exhibited spontaneous Ca2+ responses, which could be classified into the following three major patterns depending on the cell density: localized Ca2+ responses at cell protrusions at a low density, a cell-wide spread of Ca2+ responses at a medium density, and Ca2+ responses in clusters of 3-20 cells at a high density. The P2Y receptor inhibitor suramin (10 μM), the ATP-degrading enzyme apyrase (5 units/mL), and the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor inhibitor FIIN-2 (1 μM) decreased the frequency of spontaneous Ca2+ responses. These results indicate that ATP and FGF are involved in the spontaneous Ca2+ responses. SF2 cells differentiate into ameloblasts via interactions with mesenchymal cells. Therefore, SF2-G-GECO cells are expected to be a useful tool for studying the functions of Ca2+ responses in regulating gene expression during tooth development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narumi Ishida
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido
| | - Kaori Murata
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido
| | - Takao Morita
- Department of Biochemistry, The Nippon Dental University School of Life Dentistry at Niigata
| | - Shingo Semba
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido
| | - Akihiro Nezu
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido
| | - Akihiko Tanimura
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido
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El Helou G, Ponzio TA, Goodman JF, Blevins M, Caudell DL, Raviprakash KS, Ewing D, Williams M, Porter KR, Sanders JW. Tetravalent dengue DNA vaccine is not immunogenic when delivered by retrograde infusion into salivary glands. TROPICAL DISEASES TRAVEL MEDICINE AND VACCINES 2020; 6:10. [PMID: 32518668 PMCID: PMC7268334 DOI: 10.1186/s40794-020-00111-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Introduction and background A tetravalent DNA vaccine for Dengue virus is under development but has not yet achieved optimal immunogenicity. Salivary glands vaccination has been reported efficacious in rodents and dogs. We report on a pilot study testing the salivary gland as a platform for a Dengue DNA vaccine in a non-human primate model. Materials and methods Four cynomolgus macaques were used in this study. Each macaque was pre-medicated with atropine and sedated with ketamine. Stensen’s duct papilla was cannulated with a P10 polyethylene tube, linked to a 500ul syringe. On the first two infusions, all macaques were infused with 300ul of TVDV mixed with 2 mg of zinc. For the 3rd infusion, to increase transfection into salivary tissue, two animals received 100uL TVDV mixed with 400uL polyethylenimine 1μg/ml (PEI) and the other two animals received 500uL TVDV with zinc. Antibody titers were assessed 4 weeks following the second and third infusion. Results and conclusions SGRI through Stensen’s duct is a well-tolerated, simple and easy to reproduce procedure. TVDV infused into macaques salivary glands elicited a significantly weaker antibody response than with different delivery methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy El Helou
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL USA
| | - Todd A Ponzio
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC USA
| | - Joseph F Goodman
- Department of Otolaryngology, George Washington School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037 USA
| | - Maria Blevins
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC USA
| | - David L Caudell
- Department of Pathology, Section on Comparative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC USA
| | | | - Daniel Ewing
- Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, MD USA
| | - Maya Williams
- Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, MD USA
| | | | - John W Sanders
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC USA
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Nominato LF, Dias AC, Dias LC, Fantucci MZ, Mendes da Silva LEC, Murashima ADA, Rocha EM. Prevention of Corneal Neovascularization by Adenovirus Encoding Human Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Soluble Receptor (s-VEGFR1) in Lacrimal Gland. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2019; 59:6036-6044. [PMID: 30574658 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.17-22322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The aims of this study were (1) to determine the efficacy of adenovirus vector serotype 5 (Ad) encoding human soluble VEGF receptor 1 (s-VEGFR1) gene transfer to the lacrimal gland (LG); (2) to investigate whether expression of s-VEGFR1 prevents corneal neovascularization (CNV) induced by alkali burns; and (3) to evaluate the safety of the procedure. Methods AdVEGFR1 vectors (25 μL, 1 × 1010 pfu/mL) were injected in the right LGs of rats and were compared with AdNull vector (25 μL, 1 × 1010 pfu/mL) or 25 μL of saline (Control) before cornea alkali burns with 1 M NaOH. After 7 days, CNV was documented at the slit lamp. Tear secretion was measured with phenol red threads. The animals were tested for s-VEGFR1 mRNA and protein in the LG by quantitative (q)PCR and immunohistochemistry staining, respectively. qPCR was used to compare the mRNA levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in the LG and ipsilateral trigeminal ganglion (TG). Results Ad-VEGFR1 transfected 83% (10/12) of the rats. VEGFR1 was present in LG acinar cells. CNV was prevented in 9 of 12 animals in the Ad-VEGFR1 group, compared with the Ad-Null (3:10) and Control groups (1:10) (P = 0.0317). The tear secretion and cytokine mRNA levels in the LG and TG were similar in all three groups (P > 0.05). Conclusions Adenoviral vector gene transfer was safe for LG structure and function. The LG as the target tissue showed local expression of human s-VEGFR1, and CNV was prevented in most of the eyes exposed to alkali burns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Fernando Nominato
- Department of Ophthalmology, Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Dias
- Department of Ophthalmology, Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lara Cristina Dias
- Department of Ophthalmology, Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marina Zilio Fantucci
- Department of Ophthalmology, Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Adriana de Andrade Murashima
- Department of Ophthalmology, Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Melani Rocha
- Department of Ophthalmology, Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
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Ferreira JN, Zheng C, Lombaert IM, Goldsmith CM, Cotrim AP, Symonds JM, Patel VN, Hoffman MP. Neurturin Gene Therapy Protects Parasympathetic Function to Prevent Irradiation-Induced Murine Salivary Gland Hypofunction. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2018; 9:172-180. [PMID: 29560384 PMCID: PMC5857485 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2018.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Head and neck cancer patients treated with irradiation often present irreversible salivary gland hypofunction for which no conventional treatment exists. We recently showed that recombinant neurturin, a neurotrophic factor, improves epithelial regeneration of mouse salivary glands in ex vivo culture after irradiation by reducing apoptosis of parasympathetic neurons. Parasympathetic innervation is essential to maintain progenitor cells during gland development and for regeneration of adult glands. Here, we investigated whether a neurturin-expressing adenovirus could be used for gene therapy in vivo to protect parasympathetic neurons and prevent gland hypofunction after irradiation. First, ex vivo fetal salivary gland culture was used to compare the neurturin adenovirus with recombinant neurturin, showing they both improve growth after irradiation by reducing neuronal apoptosis and increasing innervation. Then, the neurturin adenovirus was delivered to mouse salivary glands in vivo, 24 hr before irradiation, and compared with a control adenovirus. The control-treated glands have ∼50% reduction in salivary flow 60 days post-irradiation, whereas neurturin-treated glands have similar flow to nonirradiated glands. Further, markers of parasympathetic function, including vesicular acetylcholine transporter, decreased with irradiation, but not with neurturin treatment. Our findings suggest that in vivo neurturin gene therapy prior to irradiation protects parasympathetic function and prevents irradiation-induced hypofunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joao N.A. Ferreira
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Changyu Zheng
- Translational Research Core, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Isabelle M.A. Lombaert
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Corinne M. Goldsmith
- Translational Research Core, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Ana P. Cotrim
- Translational Research Core, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jennifer M. Symonds
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Vaishali N. Patel
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Matthew P. Hoffman
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- Corresponding author: Matthew P. Hoffman, Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, 30 Convent Drive, Building 30/5A509, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Wang J, Huang W, Xu R, Nie Y, Cao X, Meng J, Xu X, Hu S, Zheng Z. MicroRNA-24 regulates cardiac fibrosis after myocardial infarction. J Cell Mol Med 2013; 16:2150-60. [PMID: 22260784 PMCID: PMC3822985 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2012.01523.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiac fibrosis after myocardial infarction (MI) has been identified as a key factor in the development of heart failure. Although dysregulation of microRNA (miRNA) is involved in various pathophysiological processes in the heart, the role of miRNA in fibrosis regulation after MI is not clear. Previously we observed the correlation between fibrosis and the miR-24 expression in hypertrophic hearts, herein we assessed how miR-24 regulates fibrosis after MI. Using qRT-PCR, we showed that miR-24 was down-regulated in the MI heart; the change in miR-24 expression was closely related to extracellular matrix (ECM) remodelling. In vivo, miR-24 could improve heart function and attenuate fibrosis in the infarct border zone of the heart two weeks after MI through intramyocardial injection of Lentiviruses. Moreover, in vitro experiments suggested that up-regulation of miR-24 by synthetic miR-24 precursors could reduce fibrosis and also decrease the differentiation and migration of cardiac fibroblasts (CFs). TGF-β (a pathological mediator of fibrotic disease) increased miR-24 expression, overexpression of miR-24 reduced TGF-β secretion and Smad2/3 phosphorylation in CFs. By performing microarray analyses and bioinformatics analyses, we found furin to be a potential target for miR-24 in fibrosis (furin is a protease which controls latent TGF-β activation processing). Finally, we demonstrated that protein and mRNA levels of furin were regulated by miR-24 in CFs. These findings suggest that miR-24 has a critical role in CF function and cardiac fibrosis after MI through a furin–TGF-β pathway. Thus, miR-24 may be used as a target for treatment of MI and other fibrotic heart diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jue Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Translational Cardiovascular Medicine, Fuwai Hospital & Cardiovascular Institute, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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Lee BH, Carcamo WC, Chiorini JA, Peck AB, Nguyen CQ. Gene therapy using IL-27 ameliorates Sjögren's syndrome-like autoimmune exocrinopathy. Arthritis Res Ther 2012; 14:R172. [PMID: 22827855 PMCID: PMC3580566 DOI: 10.1186/ar3925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2012] [Accepted: 07/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Sjögren's syndrome (SjS) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by decreased salivary and lacrimal gland secretions, resulting in severe dry mouth and dry eyes. Recent studies have suggested that TH17 cells and its signature cytokine IL-17 are involved in the underlying pathogenic mechanisms leading to destructive inflammation and autoimmunity. In the present study, we examined whether IL-27, a natural inhibitor of TH17 activity, could down-regulate or reverse SjS in C57BL/6.NOD-Aec1Aec2 mice, a model of primary-SjS. Methods Recombinant serotype 2 adeno-associated viral (AAV2) vectors expressing either IL-27 (rAAV2-IL27) or LacZ (rAAV2-LacZ) were injected into 6 or 14 week-old C57BL/6.NOD-Aec1Aec2 mice. Changes in IL-27, IL-17, and IL-10 cytokine levels in peripheral blood were determined by ELISAs, while flow cytometry analyses were used to quantify cytokine-positive splenocytes. Histological assessment of salivary glands, anti-nuclear autoantibody (ANA) staining, and stimulated saliva flow rates were used to profile SjS disease severity. Results Mice systemically treated with intravenous rAAV2-IL27 injections at either 6 or 14 weeks of age exhibited long-term elevated levels of serum IL-27 with concomitantly reduced levels of IL-17 compared with sera from mice injected with rAAV2-LacZ or saline out to 20 weeks post-inoculation. Most importantly, disease profiles revealed that rAAV2-IL27 treatment had little effect on lymphocytic focus (LF) scores, but resulted in structural changes in LF, lower titers of ANAs with changes in staining patterns, and a less severe clinical disease as determined by saliva flow rates. Conclusions These data support the concept that IL-27, when provided exogenously, can induce a suppressive effect on SjS development and thus may be an effective therapeutic agent for regulating TH17 pro-inflammatory activity in autoimmune diseases where the TH17 system has been shown to play an important role in their pathogenesis.
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Geguchadze RN, Machen L, Zourelias L, Gallo PH, Passineau MJ. An AAV2/5 vector enhances safety of gene transfer to the mouse salivary gland. J Dent Res 2012; 91:382-6. [PMID: 22307036 DOI: 10.1177/0022034512437373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was designed to improve AAV-mediated gene transfer to the murine submandibular salivary glands. Our first aim was to utilize AAV pseudotype vectors, containing the genetic elements of the canonical AAV2, packaged within capsids of AAV serotypes 5, 8, and 9. Having determined that this pseudotyping increased the efficiency of gene transfer to the glands by several orders of magnitude, we next asked whether we could reduce the gene transfer inoculum of the pseudotype while still achieving gene transfer comparable with that achieved with high-dose AAV2. Having achieved gene transfer comparable with that of AAV2 using a pseudotype vector (AAV2/5) at a 100-fold lower dose, our final objective was to evaluate the implications of this lower dose on two pre-clinical parameters of vector safety. To evaluate systemic toxicity, we measured AAV vector sequestration in the liver using qPCR, and found that the 100-fold lower dose reduced the vector recovered from the liver by 300-fold. To evaluate salivary gland function, we undertook whole-proteome profiling of salivary gland lysates two weeks after vector administration and found that high-dose (5 × 10⁹) AAV altered the expression level of ~32% of the entire salivary gland proteome, and that the lower dose (5 × 10⁷) reduced this effect to ~7%.
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Affiliation(s)
- R N Geguchadze
- Allegheny-Singer Research Institute, West Penn-Allegheny Health System, Room 841, South Tower, 320 East North Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15212-4772, USA
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Hsu J, Di Pasquale G, Harunaga J, Onodera T, Hoffman M, Chiorini J, Yamada K. Viral gene transfer to developing mouse salivary glands. J Dent Res 2012; 91:197-202. [PMID: 22095070 PMCID: PMC3261122 DOI: 10.1177/0022034511429346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2011] [Revised: 09/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Branching morphogenesis is essential for the formation of salivary glands, kidneys, lungs, and many other organs during development, but the mechanisms underlying this process are not adequately understood. Microarray and other gene expression methods have been powerful approaches for identifying candidate genes that potentially regulate branching morphogenesis. However, functional validation of the proposed roles for these genes has been severely hampered by the absence of efficient techniques to genetically manipulate cells within embryonic organs. Using ex vivo cultured embryonic mouse submandibular glands (SMGs) as models to study branching morphogenesis, we have identified new vectors for viral gene transfer with high efficiency and cell-type specificity to developing SMGs. We screened adenovirus, lentivirus, and 11 types of adeno-associated viruses (AAV) for their ability to transduce embryonic day 12 or 13 SMGs. We identified two AAV types, AAV2 and bovine AAV (BAAV), that are selective in targeting expression differentially to SMG epithelial and mesenchymal cell populations, respectively. Transduction of SMG epithelia with self-complementary (sc) AAV2 expressing fibroblast growth factor 7 (Fgf7) supported gland survival and enhanced SMG branching morphogenesis. Our findings represent, to our knowledge, the first successful selective gene targeting to epithelial vs. mesenchymal cells in an organ undergoing branching morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.C. Hsu
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Building 30, Room 426, 30 Convent Drive, MSC 4370, Bethesda, MD 20892-4370, USA
| | - G. Di Pasquale
- Molecular Physiology and Therapeutics Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Building 30, Room 426, 30 Convent Drive, MSC 4370, Bethesda, MD 20892-4370, USA
| | - J.S. Harunaga
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Building 30, Room 426, 30 Convent Drive, MSC 4370, Bethesda, MD 20892-4370, USA
| | - T. Onodera
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Building 30, Room 426, 30 Convent Drive, MSC 4370, Bethesda, MD 20892-4370, USA
| | - M.P. Hoffman
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Building 30, Room 426, 30 Convent Drive, MSC 4370, Bethesda, MD 20892-4370, USA
| | - J.A. Chiorini
- Molecular Physiology and Therapeutics Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Building 30, Room 426, 30 Convent Drive, MSC 4370, Bethesda, MD 20892-4370, USA
| | - K.M. Yamada
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Building 30, Room 426, 30 Convent Drive, MSC 4370, Bethesda, MD 20892-4370, USA
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Gene delivery system involving Bubble liposomes and ultrasound for the efficient in vivo delivery of genes into mouse tongue tissue. Int J Pharm 2011; 422:332-7. [PMID: 22100513 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Revised: 10/25/2011] [Accepted: 11/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Oral squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of head and neck cancer. Recently, efficient, easy, and minimally invasive gene delivery methods are expected to be developed as cancer gene therapies. However, the optimal method for delivering therapeutic genes into oral tissue for cancer treatment has not been elucidated. Therefore, we hypothesized that the tongue is a good target tissue for gene delivery with Bubble liposomes and ultrasound. To assess this, we attempted to deliver a mixture of plasmid DNA encoding a luciferase or enhanced green fluorescent protein, and Bubble liposomes into murine tongue with or without ultrasound exposure. The ultrasound conditions were 1 MHz, 2 W/cm(2), 60s, and duty cycle: 50%. The time-course of gene expression in the tongue was investigated with a luciferase assay and fluorescent microscopy. Luciferase expression was significantly increased in tongue transfected using Bubble liposomes and ultrasound compared with that of the tongue untreated with ultrasound, and this high level of luciferase activity was maintained for 2 weeks. From these results, Bubble liposomes can be used in combination with ultrasound to efficiently deliver plasmid DNA into the tongue in vivo. This technique is a highly promising approach for gene delivery into oral tissue.
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Nguyen CQ, Yin H, Lee BH, Chiorini JA, Peck AB. IL17: potential therapeutic target in Sjögren's syndrome using adenovirus-mediated gene transfer. J Transl Med 2011; 91:54-62. [PMID: 20856230 PMCID: PMC3012147 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2010.164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Sjögren's syndrome (SS) involves a chronic, progressive inflammation primarily of the salivary and lacrimal glands leading to decreased levels of saliva and tears that eventually result in dry mouth and dry eye diseases. T(H)17 cell populations secreting IL17A have been shown to have an important function in an increasing number of autoimmune diseases, including SS. In this study, we investigated the function of IL17A on SS development and onset. Adenovirus-5 vectors expressing either IL17R:fragment of crystallization (Fc) fusion protein or LacZ were injected through retrograde cannulation into the salivary glands of SS-susceptible (SS(S)) C57BL/6.NOD-Aec1Aec2 mice between 6 and 8 weeks of age (a pre-disease stage) or 15 and 17 weeks of age (a diseased stage). The mice were subsequently characterized for their SS phenotypes. Mice cannulated with the Ad5-IL17R:Fc viral vector at either 7 or 16 weeks of age exhibited a rapid temporal, yet persistent, decrease in the levels of serum IL17 as well as the overall numbers of CD4+IL17+T cells present in their spleens. Disease profiling indicated that these mice showed decreased lymphocytic infiltrations of their salivary glands, normalization of their antinuclear antibodies repertoire, and increased saliva secretion. In contrast, mice cannulated with the control Ad5-LacZ viral vector did not exhibit similar changes and progressed to the overt disease stage. The capacity of the Ad5-IL17R:Fc-blocking factor to reduce SS pathology in SS(S) mice strongly suggests that IL17 is an important inflammatory cytokine in salivary gland dysfunction. Thus, therapeutic approach targeting IL17 may be effective in preventing glandular dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuong Q. Nguyen
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida College of Dentistry, 1600 SW Archer Rd, Gainesville, Florida USA, Center for Orphan Autoimmune Disorders, University of Florida College of Dentistry, 1600 SW Archer Rd, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Hongen Yin
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Byung Ha Lee
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida College of Dentistry, 1600 SW Archer Rd, Gainesville, Florida USA
| | - John A. Chiorini
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Ammon B. Peck
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida College of Dentistry, 1600 SW Archer Rd, Gainesville, Florida USA, Center for Orphan Autoimmune Disorders, University of Florida College of Dentistry, 1600 SW Archer Rd, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Department of Pathology, Immunology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, 1600 SW Archer Rd, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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Sramkova M, Masedunskas A, Parente L, Molinolo A, Weigert R. Expression of plasmid DNA in the salivary gland epithelium: novel approaches to study dynamic cellular processes in live animals. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2009; 297:C1347-57. [PMID: 19794147 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00262.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The ability to dynamically image cellular and subcellular structures in a live animal and to target genes to a specific cell population in a living tissue provides a unique tool to address many biological questions in the proper physiological context. Here, we describe a powerful approach that is based on the use of rat submandibular salivary glands, which offer the possibility to easily perform intravital imaging and deliver molecules from the oral cavity, and plasmid DNA, which offers the advantage of rapid manipulations. We show that, under different experimental conditions, a reporter molecule can be rapidly expressed in specific compartments of the glands: 1) in the intercalated ducts, when plasmid DNA is administered alone, and 2) in granular ducts, striated ducts, and, to a lesser extent, acini, when plasmid DNA is mixed with replication-deficient adenovirus subtype 5 particles. Remarkably, we also found that gene expression can be directed to acinar cells when plasmid DNA is administered during isoproterenol-stimulated exocytosis, suggesting a novel mechanism of plasmid internalization regulated by compensatory endocytosis. Finally, as a practical application of these strategies, we show how the expression of fluorescently tagged molecules enables the study of the dynamics of various organelles in live animals at a resolution comparable to that achieved in cell cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Sramkova
- Intracellular Membrane Trafficking Unit, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4340, USA
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13
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Hai B, Yan X, Voutetakis A, Zheng C, Cotrim AP, Shan Z, Ding G, Zhang C, Xu J, Goldsmith CM, Afione S, Chiorini JA, Baum BJ, Wang S. Long-term transduction of miniature pig parotid glands using serotype 2 adeno-associated viral vectors. J Gene Med 2009; 11:506-14. [PMID: 19326368 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.1319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previously, using an adenoviral vector, we showed that miniature pigs could provide a valuable and affordable large animal model for pre-clinical gene therapy studies to correct parotid gland radiation damage. However, adenoviral vectors lead to short-term transgene expression and, ideally, a more stable correction is required. In the present study, we examined the suitability of using a serotype 2 adeno-associated viral (AAV2) vector to mediate more stable gene transfer in the parotid glands of these animals. METHODS Heparan sulfate proteoglycan was detected by immunohistochemistry. beta-galactosidase expression was determined histochemically. An AAV2 vector encoding human erythropoietin (hEpo) was administered via Stensen's duct. Salivary and serum hEpo levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Serum chemistry and hematological analyses were performed and serum antibodies to hEpo were measured throughout the study. Vector distribution was determined by a quantitative polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS Transgene expression was vector dose-dependent, with high levels of hEpo being detected for up to 32 weeks (i.e. the longest time studied). hEpo reached maximal levels during weeks 4-8, but declined to approximately 25% of these values by week 32. Haematocrits were elevated from week 2. Transduced animals exhibited low serum anti-hEpo antibodies (1 : 8-1 : 16). Vector biodistribution at animal sacrifice revealed that most copies were in the targeted parotid gland, with few being detected elsewhere. No consistent adverse changes in serum chemistry or hematology parameters were seen. CONCLUSIONS AAV2 vectors mediate extended gene transfer to miniature pig parotid glands and should be useful for testing pre-clinical gene therapy strategies aiming to correct salivary gland radiation damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Hai
- Salivary Gland Disease Center and the Molecular Laboratory for Gene Therapy, School of Stomatology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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14
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Yin C, Dang HN, Gazor F, Huang GTJ. Mouse salivary glands and human beta-defensin-2 as a study model for antimicrobial gene therapy: technical considerations. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006; 28:352-60. [PMID: 16963233 PMCID: PMC3285981 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2006.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2006] [Revised: 05/28/2006] [Accepted: 05/31/2006] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Transduction of salivary glands with antimicrobial peptide genes has great potential for oral infection control. Our ultimate goal is to introduce antimicrobial peptide genes into salivary glands that secrete these peptides into saliva to control bacterial/fungal infection in the oral cavity. However, an animal study model to test this potential has not been established. Therefore, we determined to test (i) whether the potent antimicrobial peptide human beta-defensin-2 (hBD-2) can be overexpressed in saliva after transduction of salivary glands and (ii) whether oral fungal infection can be developed in a NOD/SCID murine model. Lentiviral vector SIN18cPPTRhMLV bearing hBD-2 cDNA was introduced into SCID mouse submandibular glands via cannulation. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), immunohistochemistry or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were performed to detect hBD-2 expression in glands or in saliva. Candida albicans 613p was inoculated orally into SCID mice to establish oral candidiasis. Whilst expression of hBD-2 was detected in mouse salivary glands by RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry 1 day or 1 week following delivery of lentivirus, hBD-2 was not detected in saliva. There was recoverable C. albicans from the oral cavity and gastrointestinal tract 4 days to 4 weeks after infection, but there was no establishment of observable oral candidiasis in SCID mice under a stereomicroscope. Our data indicate that lentiviral vectors transduce mouse salivary glands, but not at a sufficient level to allow hBD-2 detection in saliva. Other vectors for gene transduction and additional treatment of SCID mice to establish oral candidiasis are needed in order to utilise mouse salivary glands to test antimicrobial gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyi Yin
- Division of Associated Clinical Specialties, Section of Endodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Oral Biology and Medicine, and Orofacial Pain, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Hoa N. Dang
- Division of Associated Clinical Specialties, Section of Endodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Farzad Gazor
- Division of Associated Clinical Specialties, Section of Endodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - George T.-J. Huang
- Division of Associated Clinical Specialties, Section of Endodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Oral Biology and Medicine, and Orofacial Pain, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Dental and Craniofacial Research Institute, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Corresponding author. Present address: University of Maryland, College of Dental Surgery, Dental School, Department of Endodontics, Prosthodontics and Operative Dentistry, 666 West Baltimore St., Baltimore, MD 21201, USA. Tel.: +1 410 706 7285; fax: +1 410 706 3028. (G.T.-J. Huang)
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15
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Shai E, Palmon A, Panet A, Marmary Y, Sherman Y, Curran MA, Galun E, Condiotti R. Prolonged transgene expression in murine salivary glands following non-primate lentiviral vector transduction. Mol Ther 2006; 12:137-43. [PMID: 15963929 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2005.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2004] [Revised: 02/07/2005] [Accepted: 02/07/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Salivary glands are an accessible organ for gene therapy, enabling expression of recombinant proteins for both exocrine and endocrine secretion. Lentivirus-based vectors have many advantages for gene therapy, including their ability to infect nondividing cells and to stably integrate into the host genome, enabling long-term transgene expression without eliciting an inflammatory immune response. In the present study, murine salivary glands were inoculated with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV)-based lentiviral vectors expressing various reporter genes. Luciferase expression was observed as early as 24 h posttransduction, peaked at 17-21 days, and remained stable for more than 80 days. Staining with X-gal suggested that mucous acinar cells were effectively transduced. FIV vector transduction with the secreted alkaline phosphatase gene increased serum levels in treated animals for up to 45 days, and the FIV vector harboring the interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) expression cassette induced an increase in IFN-gamma serum levels as well as in the supernatant of salivary gland explant cultures. These results demonstrate that the transduction of salivary glands with nonprimate lentiviral vectors may provide a novel and highly effective vehicle for long-term endocrine transgene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ela Shai
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
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16
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Yin C, Dang HN, Zhang HB, Gazor F, Kim D, Sorensen OE, Huang GTJ. Capacity of human beta-defensin expression in gene-transduced and cytokine-induced cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 339:344-54. [PMID: 16298338 PMCID: PMC3282591 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2005] [Accepted: 11/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the capacity of cells transduced with human beta-defensins (HBDs) to express antimicrobial peptides, since sufficient expression level is required for effective antimicrobial activity. Retroviral vector pBabeNeo and lentiviral vector SIN18cPPTRhMLV (SIN18) carrying HBDs were utilized to transduce non-HBD-expressing cells such as fibroblasts or HBD-producing oral epithelial cells. We found that HBD-3 gene transfer to fibroblasts was possible not via retrovirus but by direct vector transfection. SIN18 had high transduction efficiencies (80.9-99.9%) and transduced cells expressed higher amounts of HBD-2 than those by pBabeNeo. Primary human gingival epithelial cells (HGECs) expressed greater amounts of HBD-2 than primary fibroblasts after lentiviral transduction. Additionally, HBD-2 secretion from transduced HGECs cells was further increased when stimulated with IL-1 or TNFalpha. Our data indicate that while HBD-2 expression is limited in primary fibroblasts, its expression in HGECs may be maximized by gene transduction plus cytokine induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyi Yin
- Division of Associated Clinical Specialties, Section of Endodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Oral Biology and Medicine, and Orofacial Pain, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Hoa N. Dang
- Division of Associated Clinical Specialties, Section of Endodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Hai-Bo Zhang
- Division of Associated Clinical Specialties, Section of Endodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Farzad Gazor
- Division of Associated Clinical Specialties, Section of Endodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Daniel Kim
- Division of Associated Clinical Specialties, Section of Endodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ole E. Sorensen
- UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Host Defense Laboratory, Dept. of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - George T.-J. Huang
- Division of Associated Clinical Specialties, Section of Endodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Oral Biology and Medicine, and Orofacial Pain, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Dental and Craniofacial Research Institute, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Corresponding author. Present address: University of Maryland, College of Dental Surgery, Dental School, Department of Endodontics, Prosthodontics and Operative Dentistry, 666 West Baltimore St., Baltimore, MD 21201, USA. Fax: + 1 410 706 3028. (G.T.-J. Huang)
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17
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Hadaczek P, Mirek H, Berger MS, Bankiewicz K. Limited efficacy of gene transfer in herpes simplex virus-thymidine kinase/ganciclovir gene therapy for brain tumors. J Neurosurg 2005; 102:328-35. [PMID: 15739562 DOI: 10.3171/jns.2005.102.2.0328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT Low efficacy of gene transfer, transient gene expression, and toxicity of viral vectors are the major hurdles in successful anticancer gene therapy. The authors conducted in vitro (U87MG cell line) and in vivo (xenograft, tumor-bearing rodent model) studies to address the stability of transduction by using the adenoassociated virus serotype-2 (AAV2)-thymidine kinase (TK) vector over time. METHODS Standard methods for cell growth and a ganciclovir (GCV) cytotoxicity assay were applied. The AAV2-TK was infused into implanted tumors in athymic rats via convection-enhanced delivery (CED). Thymidine kinase expression was evaluated through immunohistochemical analysis, and the distribution volumes of the transduced tumors were calculated. Twenty-four hours following the viral infusions, animals were treated with GCV (50 mg/kg intraperitoneally every day for 10 days; six rats) or phosphate-buffered saline (six rats). A rapid decrease in TK expression over time was observed both in vitro and in vivo. A large volume of the tumor (up to 39%) was transduced with AAV2-TK following CED. Administration of GCV resulted in limited therapeutic effects (survival of 25.8 compared with 21.3 days). CONCLUSIONS Rapid elimination of TK expression from dividing tumor cells and focal transduction of the brain tumor were most likely responsible for the limited bystander effect in this approach. Immediate administration of GCV is crucial to assure maximal efficacy in the elimination of cancer cells. In addition, the complete or diffused transduction of a brain tumor with TK may be required for its total eradication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Hadaczek
- Molecular Therapy Laboratory, Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, California 94103, USA.
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18
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Aframian DJ, David R, Ben-Bassat H, Shai E, Deutsch D, Baum BJ, Palmon A. Characterization of murine autologous salivary gland graft cells: a model for use with an artificial salivary gland. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 10:914-20. [PMID: 15265309 DOI: 10.1089/1076327041348518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the growth and key functional abilities of primary cultures of salivary epithelial cells toward developing an artificial salivary gland. Cultures of epithelial cells originating from submandibular glands of BALB/c mice were established. Parenchymal cells were isolated by a Percoll gradient technique and thereafter seeded on irradiated NIH 3T3 fibroblasts serving as a feeder layer. The isolated cells were termed autologous salivary gland epithelial (ASGE) cells and could be cultivated for at least five passages (time limit of experiments). ASGE cells presented the typical organizational behavior of epithelial cells and electron microscopy, as well as immunostaining for cytokeratins, confirmed their epithelial origin. Furthermore, measurements of transepithelial resistance and water permeability indicated the ability of the ASGE cells to form a functional epithelial barrier. This study suggests that primary salivary epithelial cells can be obtained that exhibit critical characteristics needed for use with an artificial secretory device.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Aframian
- Institute of Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dental Medicine, Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- R Zufferey
- The Institute of Neurosciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne, EPFL.
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20
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Voutetakis A, Wang J, Baum BJ. Utilizing endocrine secretory pathways in salivary glands for systemic gene therapeutics. J Cell Physiol 2004; 199:1-7. [PMID: 14978729 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.10429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian salivary glands are commonly used models of exocrine secretion. However, there is substantial experimental evidence showing the physiological existence of endocrine secretory pathways in these tissues. The use of gene transfer technology in vivo has allowed the unambiguous demonstration of these endocrine pathways. We and others have exploited such findings and evaluated salivary glands as possible target tissues for systemic applications of gene therapeutics. Salivary glands present numerous advantages for this purpose, including being well encapsulated, which limits extra-glandular vector dissemination, and having the luminal membranes of almost all parenchymal cells accessible via intraoral delivery of vectors through the main excretory ducts. Existing studies suggest that clinical benefits will result from salivary gland targeted systemic gene therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonis Voutetakis
- Gene Therapy and Therapeutics Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1190, USA
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21
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Kok MR, Baum BJ, Tak PP, Pillemer SR. Use of localised gene transfer to develop new treatment strategies for the salivary component of Sjögren's syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis 2003; 62:1038-46. [PMID: 14583564 PMCID: PMC1754372 DOI: 10.1136/ard.62.11.1038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Effective treatment for Sjögren's syndrome (SS) might be developed locally by introducing genes encoding cytokines, which are potentially anti-inflammatory, or by introducing a cDNA encoding a soluble form of a key cytokine receptor, which can act as an antagonist and decrease the availability of certain cytokines, such as soluble tumour necrosis factor alpha receptors. Currently, the preferred choice of viral vector for immunomodulatory gene transfer is recombinant adeno-associated virus. The use of gene transfer to help determine the pathophysiology and to alter the course of the SS-like disease in the NOD mouse model can ultimately lead to the development of new treatments for managing the salivary component in patients with SS.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Kok
- Gene Therapy and Therapeutics Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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