Self-discrepancies in clinically anxious and depressed university students

Do we interpret ambiguity and feel according to how we define ourselves? Relationships between self-perception, interpretation biases, and their role on emotional symptoms

Introduction

In today's fast-paced world, depression and anxiety are the most prevalent health problems, generating high economic and social burdens. Interpretation biases seem to play a pivotal role in this emotional problems, influencing how individuals interpret emotionally ambiguous information. These interpretation biases can emerge due to the activation of latent schemas related to how individuals perceive themselves. Therefore, integrating the study of cognitive and self-discrepancy models can offer a comprehensive approach to better understanding the onset or maintenance of emotional symptoms, through their relationship with interpretation biases. In this paper, we aimed to test whether differences in self-perception might act like a cognitive schema that activate cognitive bias, influencing information processing and predicting emotional symptoms.

Method

Seventy-three undergraduates completed two different experimental tasks, evaluating self-discrepancies and self-referential negative interpretation bias. Moreover, emotional symptoms were collected after completing the tasks and 1-2 months after, prior to coping with a natural stressor (exam period). The main analyses comprised mediational models, both cross-sectional and longitudinal, with the aim to test whether interpretation bias might act like a mediator in the relation between self-discrepancies and emotional symptoms.

Results

First, the results showed significant correlations between higher levels of self-discrepancies (actual-ideal and actual-ought) and higher levels of emotional symptoms (depression and anxiety), as well as with higher negative interpretation biases. Further, cross-sectional mediational models showed that negative interpretation biases partially mediated the relationship between self-discrepancies and emotional symptoms. As for the longitudinal mediation analysis, interpretation bias only mediated the specific relation between actual-ideal self-discrepancies and increases in anxiety symptoms, while the rest of the indirect effects were not significant.

Discussion

These results suggest that self-discrepancies could be understood as indices of the activation of latent cognitive schemas, which would influence subsequent stages of information processing, such as negative interpretations of ambiguous information, partly accounting for the emergence and/or maintenance of emotional symptoms.

The differential roles of shame and guilt in the relationship between self-discrepancy and psychological maladjustment

The self-discrepancy theory proposes that having inconsistent self-representations can trigger feelings of shame and guilt, leading to experiences of depression and anxiety. The aim of this study was to determine the distinct characteristics of each shame and guilt in relation to the connection between actual/ideal self-discrepancy and depression, as well as actual/ought self-discrepancy and anxiety. A total of 403 participants completed an online questionnaire assessing their self-discrepancy, shame, guilt, depression, and anxiety. Correlational analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis were used to assess the goodness of fit of the proposed model and the structural relationships between the variables. The key findings were as follows: (1) There were positive correlations among actual/ideal self-discrepancy, actual/ought self-discrepancy, shame, guilt, depression, and anxiety; (2) Shame partially mediated the association between actual/ideal self-discrepancy and depression; and (3) Guilt fully mediated the association between actual/ought self-discrepancy and anxiety. These outcomes uphold the self-discrepancy theory by confirming a distinct intra-psychological process involving shame and guilt. Each type of self-discrepancy was related to experiences of depression and anxiety. Our data suggest that researchers and practitioners should prioritize shame and guilt when examining individuals' self-discrepancy and related mental health challenges.

Thinking about the consequences: The detrimental role of future thinking on intrapersonal problem-solving in depression

Despite the fact that depressed individuals encounter a multitude of social problems in daily life, research on social problem-solving has largely been dominated by research on interpersonal problems and there is a paucity of research on intrapersonal problems. Intrapersonal problems are linked to one's subjective psychological functioning and involve managing one's own feelings and emotions pertaining to the self. Given that depressed individuals exhibit impaired emotion regulation, it is possible that their ability to solve intrapersonal problems may be impaired, especially in relation to future thinking. The aim of this study was to investigate whether future thinking, in the form of thinking about the consequences of a problem being resolved or remaining unresolved has an impact on intrapersonal problem-solving in depression. Forty-five depressed and fifty-four non-depressed participants completed a modified version of the means end problem-solving task (MEPS). In the task, participants were presented with a series of intrapersonal problems and were asked to generate consequences of the problems being resolved or remaining unresolved. Participants were then presented with a positive resolution to each of the problems and were asked to solve the problem to achieve the positive resolution. Following a delay, participants were asked to recall all of the consequences initially generated. Overall, depressed individuals generated fewer-relevant means and less effective solutions to problems than non-depressed participants. Depressed individuals also demonstrated impaired intrapersonal problem-solving following the generation of resolved and unresolved consequences, compared to a baseline condition, where no consequences were generated. These findings suggest that future thinking impairs intrapersonal problem-solving and indicates that a more nuanced approach to future thinking and social problem-solving in depression is needed across different real-life problem-solving contexts.

Alexithymia is a mediating factor in the relationship between adult attachment and severity of depression and social anxiety

BACKGROUND

Major depressive disorder (MDD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) are commonly occurring conditions, either alone or together (MDD-SAD). Recent research linked insecure attachment and alexithymia to MDD and/or SAD, indicating that the way affected individuals relate interpersonally and their ability to identify and communicate emotions are pertinent issues. The current study investigated the mediating role of alexithymia in the relationship between insecure attachment and severity of MDD and SAD symptoms.

METHOD

Using the SCID-I, participants (N=159) were identified as MDD-only (n=43), MDD-SAD (n=56), or a healthy control (n=60). Participants completed measures of adult attachment, depression, social anxiety and alexithymia (defined as difficulty identifying and describing feelings). A two-step mediation analysis approach recommended by Shrout and Bolger determined if alexithymia mediates the relationship between attachment-depression and attachment-social anxiety.

RESULTS

While alexithymia was high in MDD-only and MDD-SAD groups, individuals with MDD-SAD had significantly greater difficulty describing feelings. Alexithymia was a full mediator between attachment avoidance and depression, but only a partial mediator between attachment anxiety and depression. Meanwhile, alexithymia was a partial mediator for both attachment dimensions and social anxiety.

LIMITATIONS

Causal inferences regarding insecure attachment, alexithymia, and MDD and SAD cannot be assumed given the cross-sectional data. The 'externally oriented thinking' component in alexithymia was also excluded from analyses due to low reliability.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest emotional awareness and expression play a role in the illness severity for MDD and SAD-particularly in those with high attachment avoidance, offering a possible target for treatment and prevention strategies.

Understanding the role of self in auditory verbal hallucinations using a self-discrepancy paradigm

OBJECTIVE

Negative auditory verbal hallucination (AVH) content is a major predictor of distress and typically occurs more frequently than positive or neutral content. Recent research has found that negative views of self are associated with the negative content of AVHs. However, research investigating the role of self in AVH content is in its infancy and warrants further study.

DESIGN

The current study examined correspondence between negative voice content and internalized representations of self, using a self-discrepancy paradigm incorporating multiple domains of self (ideal, ought, and feared). It also considered the impact of depression and anxiety.

METHOD

An adapted self-discrepancy questionnaire was administered to a transdiagnostic clinical sample of 86 current voice-hearers. Participants rated how similar they believed themselves to be (actual self), and how similar their voices would say they are (voice self), to their ideal, ought, and feared self-concepts.

RESULTS

Voice content was related to how the person viewed themselves in relation to their ideal, ought, and feared self-concepts. Additionally, voices reflected negative feared self-concepts, particularly in people with anxiety.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide further insight into the phenomenon of hearing voices and have the potential to change the way we approach formulation and treatment of AVHs. In particular, treatment approaches that reduce discrepancies between how one views themselves and their positive and negative self-concepts, or alter the relationship one has with their self-concepts and negative voices, have the potential to reduce the impact of distressing voices.

PRACTITIONER POINTS

Voice experiences can be meaningfully related to how the person views themselves in relation to concepts of their ideal, ought, and feared selves Negative voice content might be understood as reflecting discrepancies from these self-representations, which may have a self-regulatory function in relation to goal-directed behaviour. Identifying how voice content relates to self could be useful in not only challenging the extent of perceived self-discrepancies, but also considering how to enact valued parts of self.

Accelerometer-derived sedentary time and physical activity and the incidence of depressive symptoms - The Maastricht Study

BACKGROUND

This study examined the associations between accelerometer-derived sedentary time (ST), lower intensity physical activity (LPA), higher intensity physical activity (HPA) and the incidence of depressive symptoms over 4 years of follow-up.

METHODS

We included 2082 participants from The Maastricht Study (mean ± s.d. age 60.1 ± 8.0 years; 51.2% men) without depressive symptoms at baseline. ST, LPA and HPA were measured with the ActivPAL3 activity monitor. Depressive symptoms were measured annually over 4 years of follow-up with the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Cox regression analysis was performed to examine the associations between ST, LPA, HPA and incident depressive symptoms (PHQ-9 ⩾ 10). Analyses were adjusted for total waking time per day, age, sex, education level, type 2 diabetes mellitus, body mass index, total energy intake, smoking status and alcohol use.

RESULTS

During 7812.81 person-years of follow-up, 203 (9.8%) participants developed incident depressive symptoms. No significant associations [Hazard Ratio (95% confidence interval)] were found between sex-specific tertiles of ST (lowest v. highest tertile) [1.13 (0.76-1.66], or HPA (highest v. lowest tertile) [1.14 (0.78-1.69)] and incident depressive symptoms. LPA (highest v. lowest tertile) was statistically significantly associated with incident depressive symptoms in women [1.98 (1.19-3.29)], but not in men (p-interaction <0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

We did not observe an association between ST or HPA and incident depressive symptoms. Lower levels of daily LPA were associated with an increased risk of incident depressive symptoms in women. Future research is needed to investigate accelerometer-derived measured physical activity and ST with incident depressive symptoms, preferably stratified by sex.

Neural Correlates of Distorted Self-concept in Individuals With Internet Gaming Disorder: A Functional MRI Study

Background and aims: Discrepancy between ideal self-guide and actual self-concept evoke dejection-related feeling, and often individuals with internet gaming disorder (IGD) use games as the tool to escape those negative emotions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the pattern of self-discrepancy based on actual and ideal self-images and elucidate the neural correlates underlying the distorted self in individuals with IGD. Methods: Nineteen male individuals with IGD and 20 healthy controls (HCs) underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging where they decided on whether they agreed with the adjectives describing their actual or ideal self on a four-point Likert Scale. Two-sample t-test on the self-discrepancy contrast was conducted for neuroimaging analysis and correlation analysis was performed between the behavioral data and regional activities. Results: The IGD group evaluated both their ideal self and actual self more negatively than the HC group. Actual self-concept was associated with satisfaction with psychological needs as opposed to ideal self-guide. Brain activity in the inferior parietal lobule was significantly decreased in individuals with IGD relative to HCs in the self-discrepancy contrast. In addition, neural activity during evaluating actual self-concept showed a significant group difference. Conclusion: These results provide novel evidence for distorted self-concept of people with IGD. Individuals with IGD had a negative ideal and actual self-image. Neurobiologically, dysfunction in the inferior parietal lobule associated with emotional regulation and negative self-evaluation was found in IGD. Considering the characteristics of IGD that often develop in adolescence, this self-concept problem should be noted and applied with appropriate therapy.

Reducing university students' stress through a drop-in canine-therapy program

BACKGROUND

Increasingly colleges and universities are offering canine therapy to help students de-stress as a means of supporting students' emotional health and mental well-being. Despite the popularity of such programs, there remains a dearth of research attesting to their benefits.

AIMS

Participants included 1960 students at a mid-size western Canadian University. The study's aims were to assess the stress-reducing effects of a weekly drop-in, canine-therapy program and to identify how long participants spent with therapy canines to reduce their stress.

METHODS

Demographic information was gathered, length of visit documented and a visual analog scale (VAS) was used to assess entry and exit self-reports of stress.

RESULTS

Participants' self-reported stress levels were significantly lower after the canine therapy intervention. Participants spent an average of 35 min per session.

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports the use of drop-in, canine therapy as a means of reducing university students' stress. The findings hold applied significance for both counseling and animal therapy practitioners regarding the dose intervention participants seek to reduce their stress.

The relationship between stroke survivors' perceived identity and mood, self-esteem and quality of life

OBJECTIVES

To examine change in identity after stroke and to elucidate its relationship with mood and quality of life. To test Higgins' theory of the impact of identity (self-discrepancy) on anxiety and depression. To examine the role of self-esteem in mediating the relationship between identity and outcomes.

METHOD

Sixty-five community-living first-time stroke survivors, mean age 61.58 and time since stroke 5.60 years, were recruited from stroke charities. A cross-sectional study used the Head Injury Semantic Differential Scale, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Stroke-Specific Quality of Life Questionnaire (adapted) and the Barthel Index.

RESULTS

Identity was rated more negatively after stroke than before (t(64) = 6.46, p < .00). Greater discrepancy in identity was associated with anxiety (r = .38, p < .00), depression (r = .59, p < .00), self-esteem (r = -.48, p < .00) and quality of life (r = -.54, p < .00). Overall positivity of identity after stroke predicted outcomes even better than discrepancy. The association between discrepancy and mood and quality of life was mediated by self-esteem (β = .30, p < .01; β = -.24, p < .01, respectively). Specific types of discrepancy defined by Higgins did not show differential relationships with anxiety and depression as predicted.

CONCLUSIONS

Identity changes after stroke and identity and self-esteem are associated with important outcomes for stroke survivors.

Examining the role of self-discrepancy and self-directed style in bulimia nervosa

Two of the primary components within Integrative Cognitive Affective Therapy (ICAT) are self-discrepancy and self-directed style. Self-discrepancy includes both actual:ideal (discrepancy between oneself and who one wishes they were) and actual:ought (discrepancy between oneself and who one believes they ought to be). Self-directed style in ICAT refers to a variety of behaviors emitted by a person toward the self including self-blaming and self-affirming. This study explored main effects and interactions between self-discrepancy and self-directed style in relation to global eating disorder (ED) psychopathology, depressive symptoms, and anxiety. Eighty treatment-seeking adults from the Midwest with BN or subthreshold BN completed interviews and self-report measures. Self-affirm and self-blame were associated with ED psychopathology, depressive symptoms, and anxiety. Actual:ideal discrepancy was related to anxiety and actual:ought discrepancy was related to anxiety and depressive symptoms. Interactions were found between self-affirm and actual:ought discrepancy as well as self-blame and actual:ought discrepancy for depressive symptoms. High actual:ought was related to increased depressive symptoms regardless of levels of self-affirm or self-blame. Effect sizes for models were medium-to-large with anxiety models demonstrating the largest effects. This study provides further evidence supporting the ICAT model and treatment, which targets self-discrepancies, self-directed styles, and related emotional states.

Coping strategies for postpartum depression: a multi-centric study of 1626 women

The transition to motherhood is stressful as it requires several important changes in family dynamics, finances, and working life, along with physical and psychological adjustments. This study aimed at determining whether some forms of coping might predict postpartum depressive symptomatology. A total of 1626 pregnant women participated in a multi-centric longitudinal study. Different evaluations were performed 8 and 32 weeks after delivery. Depression was assessed using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the structured Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies (DIGS). The brief Coping Orientation for Problem Experiences (COPE) scale was used to measure coping strategies 2-3 days postpartum. Some coping strategies differentiate between women with and without postpartum depression. A logistic regression analysis was used to explore the relationships between the predictors of coping strategies and major depression (according to DSM-IV criteria). In this model, the predictor variables during the first 32 weeks were self-distraction (OR 1.18, 95 % CI 1.04-1.33), substance use (OR 0.58, 95 % CI 0.35-0.97), and self-blame (OR 1.18, 95 % CI 1.04-1.34). In healthy women with no psychiatric history, some passive coping strategies, both cognitive and behavioral, are predictors of depressive symptoms and postpartum depression and help differentiate between patients with and without depression.

The Computerized Implicit Representation Test: Construct and incremental validity

Discrepancies in mental representations between self-aspects and significant others are associated with depression, personality disorders, emotional reactivity, and interpersonal distress. The Computerized Implicit Representation Test (CIRT) is a novel measure developed to assess discrepancies in mental representations. Inpatient participants (N = 165) enrolled in a longitudinal study completed baseline CIRT ratings of similarity between self-aspects (actual-self, ideal-self, and ought-self) and between actual-self and significant others (mother, father, liked others, and disliked others). Based on the similarity ratings, multidimensional scaling was utilized to generate distances between key self- and other representations in three-dimensional space. Results of univariate linear regression analyses demonstrated that discrepancies (distances) between self-aspects, actual-self to others, and actual-self to mother were significantly associated with impulsive and self-destructive behaviors and/or lifetime anxiety disorders. Multivariate hierarchical linear regression models further indicated that three CIRT variables provided incremental validity above and beyond age, gender, and/or borderline personality disorder.

Possible Selves: Implications for Psychotherapy

The paper is devoted to the therapeutic applications of theories and research concerning self-regulation issues. The key concept here is possible selves, defined as an element of self-knowledge that refers to what a person perceives as potentially possible. The main idea of using knowledge about possible selves in psychotherapy is based on their functions as standards in self-regulatory processes. The problem of the changeability of possible selves and self-standards is analyzed in the context of their role in behavior change. The paper also presents the assumptions of Self-System Therapy – a newly developed cognitive therapy for depression, drawing directly on self-regulation theory and research.

Understanding the relationship between actual:ideal discrepancies and depressive symptoms: a developmental examination

Self-discrepancy theory (SDT) is one framework for understanding how goal failure is associated with depressive symptoms. The present studies sought to examine the variance in depressive symptoms explained by actual:ideal discrepancies, beyond what is accounted for by actual-self ratings. Additionally, gender and grade were examined as potential moderators in the relationship. In Study 1 (N = 228), discrepancies accounted for additional variance in the level of depressive symptoms beyond what was explained by actual-self ratings in a college sample. In Study 2 (N = 192), while similar global patterns were found, gender and grade differences emerged. For boys, the relationship between actual:ideal discrepancies and depressive symptoms was due to actual-self ratings. For girls, a developmental pattern suggested that actual:ideal discrepancies become more important to the prediction of depressive symptoms among older girls. Implications for the emergence of the discrepancy-depression association are discussed.

When do self-discrepancies predict negative emotions? Exploring formal operational thought and abstract reasoning skills as moderators

Individual differences in higher-order cognitive abilities may be an important piece to understanding how and when self-discrepancies lead to negative emotions. In the current study, three measures of reasoning abilities were considered as potential moderators of the relationship between self-discrepancies and depression and anxiety symptoms. Participants (N = 162) completed measures assessing self-discrepancies, depression and anxiety symptoms, and were administered measures examining formal operational thought, and verbal and non-verbal abstract reasoning skills. Both formal operational thought and verbal abstract reasoning were significant moderators of the relationship between actual:ideal discrepancies and depressive symptoms. Discrepancies predicted depressive symptoms for individuals with higher levels of formal operational thought and verbal abstract reasoning skills, but not for those with lower levels. The discussion focuses on the need to consider advanced reasoning skills when examining self-discrepancies.

Symptom-specific self-referential cognitive processes in bipolar disorder: a longitudinal analysis

BACKGROUND

Although depression and mania are often assumed to be polar opposites, studies have shown that, in patients with bipolar disorder, they are weakly positively correlated and vary somewhat independently over time. Thus, when investigating relationships between specific psychological processes and specific symptoms (mania and depression), co-morbidity between the symptoms and changes over time must be taken into account. Method A total of 253 bipolar disorder patients were assessed every 24 weeks for 18 months using the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAMD), the Bech-Rafaelsen Mania Assessment Scale (MAS), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Questionnaire (RSEQ), the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS), the Internal, Personal and Situational Attributions Questionnaire (IPSAQ) and the Personal Qualities Questionnaire (PQQ). We calculated multilevel models using the xtreg module of Stata 9.1, with psychological and clinical measures nested within each participant.

RESULTS

Mania and depression were weakly, yet significantly, associated; each was related to distinct psychological processes. Cross-sectionally, self-esteem showed the most robust associations with depression and mania: depression was associated with low positive and high negative self-esteem, and mania with high positive self-esteem. Depression was significantly associated with most of the other self-referential measures, whereas mania was weakly associated only with the externalizing bias of the IPSAQ and the achievement scale of the DAS. Prospectively, low self-esteem predicted future depression.

CONCLUSIONS

The associations between different self-referential thinking processes and different phases of bipolar disorder, and the presence of the negative self-concept in both depression and mania, have implications for therapeutic management, and also for future directions of research.

'Poor me' versus 'Bad me' paranoia: the association between self-beliefs and the instability of persecutory ideation

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether different self-attributes would be associated with different degrees of deservedness of persecution in a clinical paranoid sample.

BACKGROUND

Some studies have shown differences between the self-esteem (SE) of individuals with 'Poor Me' (PM) and 'Bad Me' (BM) paranoia (Bentall et al., 2009; Chadwick, Trower, Juusti-Butler, & Maguire, 2005). Most studies investigating this relationship have employed a cross-sectional design, precluding the investigation of changes over time.

METHODS

In the cross-sectional part of the study, 45 clinical participants and 25 controls were assessed in terms of paranoia, deservedness of persecution, SE, self-discrepancies, daily events, and coping strategies. In the longitudinal part of the study, the clinical group was re-assessed over a period of another 2 days, in order to study changes in these variables.

RESULTS

At baseline, there were no differences between the SE of the two paranoia presentations, which was significantly lower than the controls'. However, the paired-samples repeated analysis found the SE of individuals when in a PM presentation was higher than when they were BM. Only BM paranoia was found to be associated with higher self-ideal:self-actual self-discrepancies than the other groups. The longitudinal analysis indicated that, having been PM and having low SE at the previous assessment day made it more likely that individuals would be in BM subsequently. No differences in causal attributions made for ecological events were found between the groups. Higher SE was found to be more likely when individuals coped with adversities by using social support.

CONCLUSIONS

Both deservedness of persecution and self-views appear to be unstable in individuals with paranoia and to change consistently over time, a finding which is in keeping with Bentall et al.'s (2001) dynamic model of paranoia.

Self-Discrepancy Monitoring and its Impact on Negative Mood: An Experimental Investigation

Background: The perception of self-discrepancies between the actual self and the ideal self has been defined as a cognitive risk factor for depression (Higgins, 1987). In this view, self-discrepancy monitoring (SDM) refers to the voluntary re-orientation of attention towards detecting discrepancies between ideal and actual selves, even in a positive situation. Aims: The goal of this study was to explore the impact of SDM on levels of mood in the face of positive stimuli. Method: Two clinical and two non-clinical samples were recruited from two different European countries (Italy and Romania). All participants were asked to focus on a past positive experience, and were then randomly allocated to one of two induction tasks. The experimental condition consisted of monitoring discrepancies between personal goals and the recalled positive experience, while the control condition consisted of observing what the participant was feeling. Results: The findings show that, after recalling a positive memory, SDM leads to a significant decrease in mood over a short period independent of the severity of depressive symptoms. This effect is partially mediated by the concurrent change in levels of brooding. Conclusions: Self-discrepancy monitoring in response to positive stimuli tends to lower current mood independent of the initial level of depressive symptoms, and seems to be a global trigger of emotional distress that does not refer only to a depressed cognitive style.

When Being Discrepant from One's Ideal or Ought Selves Hurts: The Moderating Role of Neuroticism

Self–discrepancy theory posits that people experience emotional consequences when they perceive discrepancies between their actual and possible selves. However, the extent to which people react emotionally to these self–discrepancies (i.e. ideal, ought and undesired) may be a function of individual differences in neuroticism. Across both experimental (Study 1; N = 155) and correlational designs (Study 2; N = 139) involving college students, the authors demonstrated that neuroticism moderated the discrepancy–emotion associations such that high–neuroticism individuals showed elevated depression and anxiety symptoms when their self–discrepancies were activated. The heightened symptoms were maintained over time. Negative repetitive thoughts (i.e. rumination and worry) were examined as potential mediating mechanisms between the discrepancy × neuroticism interaction and symptoms. Partial support was obtained in that rumination mediated between undesired discrepancy × neuroticism interaction and anxious/depressive symptoms. Implications and possible theoretical extensions for self–discrepancy theory are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Closeness discrepancies in romantic relationships: implications for relational well-being, stability, and mental health

Experiences of closeness in romantic relationships are associated with heightened levels of relational well-being and mental health. However, individuals differ in the degree of closeness they desire in their relationships. This study used the construct of inclusion of other in self (IOS) to analyze discrepancies between individuals' actual and ideal levels of closeness in their relationships and the implications of these discrepancies for relational well-being and mental health. A longitudinal survey of partnered individuals demonstrated that optimal levels of relational well-being and mental health existed when individuals had minimal discrepancies between actual and ideal IOS, regardless of their actual levels of IOS. Individuals whose actual levels of IOS moved closer to their ideal levels over a 2-year period reported improved relational well-being and mental health. Individuals with little to no discrepancies between actual and ideal IOS were also less likely to break-up with their partners over time.

Self-Discrepancies and the Situational Domains of Social Phobia

The present study explored whether particular discrepancies among an individual's self-beliefs, as described by Higgins’ (1987) Self-Discrepancy Theory, were differentially related to the two broad situational domains of social anxiety: performance and social interaction anxiety. Fifteen people (4 males) with a primary diagnosis of GSP from Macquarie University's Emotional Health Clinic, and 25 undergraduate psychology students from Macquarie University (8 males) with mean chronological ages of 31.7 and 20.6 years respectively, participated in the study. As predicted, the study found that the ‘actual/other:ought/other’ self-discrepancy was uniquely related to performance anxiety, the ‘actual/own:ought/other’ self-discrepancy was uniquely associated with social interaction anxiety, and the ‘actual/own:ideal/own’ self-discrepancy was uniquely associated with depression. The results are discussed in terms of their unique contribution to Self-Discrepancy Theory research, the current empirical debate regarding the existence of subtypes within social phobia, and their implications for the cognitive models and treatment of social anxiety.

Anxiety, self-discrepancy, and regulatory focus theory: acculturation matters

Previous research has found that Asians (vs. Caucasians) exhibit higher levels of ought and undesired self-discrepancies and prevention focus, all of which have been linked with anxiety. We examined these ethnic differences in the context of acculturation. Participants (N=155) completed two sessions scheduled a week apart. In Session 1, participants completed a computer task to measure self-discrepancy and prevention focus. In Session 2, participants' ought self-discrepancies and closeness to an undesired self were primed. Moderation analyses indicated that Asian participants who were highly assimilated to an Asian culture exhibited higher levels of a prevention focus. Acculturation also had significant moderation effects for affect when self-discrepancies were primed. Our results suggest that interventions based on these systems (i.e., self-system therapy) should consider acculturation when treating diverse individuals.

Hypomanic personality, stability of self-esteem and response styles to negative mood

OBJECTIVES

This paper aims to study dysfunctional self-schematic processes, abnormal coping styles, over-responsiveness to reward stimuli (indicative of an over-sensitive behavioural activation system) and stability of self-esteem in relation to subclinical hypomania.

DESIGN

Three cross-sectional studies were conducted on selected students on the basis of their scores on the Hypomanic Personality Scale (HPS) (study 1) and on elevated HPS and Dysfunctional Attitude Scale scores (studies 2 and 3).

METHODS

In studies 1 and 2, participants completed questionnaires and kept a self-esteem diary for 6 days. In study 3, the experience sampling method was used to assess momentary self-esteem, emotion and use of different coping styles over a 6-day period.

RESULTS

Study 1 demonstrated that hypomanic traits are associated with high fluctuations in self-esteem. In study 2, high scores on both the HPS and the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale, but not the HPS alone, were associated with bipolar spectrum symptoms. These participants showed more evidence of alcohol and substance abuse, greater self-esteem fluctuation and dysfunctional coping styles (rumination and risk-taking) compared with controls. Changes in self-esteem were related to the use of these strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

Vulnerability to bipolar disorder is associated with a combination of depression-related and reward-related processes.

Persecutory delusions and the self: An investigation of implicit and explicit self-esteem

Persecutory delusions are proposed to be a defence against low self-esteem reaching conscious awareness (Bentall, Corcoran, Howard, Blackwood, & Kinderman, 2001). Key predictions of this proposal are that individuals with persecutory delusions will have lower implicit self-esteem and equivalent levels of explicit self-esteem compared to healthy controls. This study aims to test the predictions regarding implicit and explicit self-esteem in people with persecutory delusions. Of 22 people screened for persecutory delusions, 16 were recruited to the study. 20 healthy control participants were recruited. The Implicit Association Test was used to measure implicit self-esteem and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale was used to assess explicit self-esteem. Positive and negative self and other schemas were also assessed using the Brief Core Schema Scales. People with persecutory delusions had positive implicit self-esteem, comparable to that of the control group. Explicit self-esteem was lower for the persecutory delusion group, but was associated with increased depression and anxiety. Negative self and other schemas were higher in the clinical group. The results do not support the contention that persecutory delusions defend against negative self-representations and low self-esteem reaching conscious awareness. Non-defensive cognitive models are discussed as an alternative way of understanding persecutory delusions.

Self-discrepancies in bipolar disorder: Comparison of manic, depressed, remitted and normal participants

OBJECTIVES

To study the role of self-discrepancies in different phases of bipolar disorder (manic-depression).

METHOD AND DESIGN

Patients with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder in three groups, currently depressed, currently manic or hypomanic, and currently in remission, together with healthy control participants, were administered a modified version of Higgins' Selves Questionnaire. Consistencies between the self-actual, self-ideal and self-ought representations were calculated, together with consistencies between the self-actual representation and the believed views of generalized others about the self.

RESULTS

In contrast to all other groups, bipolar depressed patients showed marked discrepancies between their self-actual and self-ideal representations, and between their self-actual and self-ought representations. Manic or hypomanic patients showed higher self-actual:self-ideal consistency than non-patient controls. The differences between the depressed participants and the other groups appeared to be accounted for by their very negative self-actual descriptions. Participants in all four groups showed high levels of consistency between self-perceptions and the believed perceptions of others about the self.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings confirm that beliefs about the self differ between different phases of bipolar disorder and are consistent with the hypothesis that the manic phase involves active avoidance of discrepancies between the self and self-ideals.

Self-discrepancy in students with bipolar disorder II or NOS

BACKGROUND

Studies on self-representation in bipolar disorder have mainly focused on the single dimension of self-esteem and recruited patients either in episode or in remission. The aim of the study was to examine multi-dimensional aspects of the self (discrepancy between actual- and ideal-selves and between actual- and feared-selves) in a student sample with a history of significant experience of hypomania (with or without experience of major depression) as compared to healthy control students.

METHODS

Bipolar students and healthy control students completed the Self-Discrepancy Questionnaire (SDQ: Carver, Lawrence, & Scheier, 1999). The degree of similarity to, and the perceived likelihood of ideal-self and feared-self characteristics were assessed.

RESULTS

The difference between the groups in level of ideal-self similarity was at trend level. Students with prior hypomania but no history of depression showed higher similarity to their feared-self than healthy controls and also rated themselves as more likely to have these feared-self characteristics in the future.

LIMITATION

The small sample size, especially in the bipolar group with no history of depression, limits the power of the study.

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of ideal-self discrepancy was not convincingly demonstrated in this sample and it is possible that where it has been identified in previous studies it may, at least in part, represent a scar of previous episodes of depression or mania rather than a predisposing factor. However a sub-sample of students who had experienced hypomania in the absence of history of depression were distinguished from healthy controls in perceived closeness to the feared-self qualities. The feared-self concept warrants further investigation in bipolar patients.

An integrated model of gay men's depressive symptoms

A model of depressive symptoms in gay men is tested that links gender-related personality traits (agency and unmitigated communion) to peer harassment, self-discrepancies in agency, and cold-submissive interpersonal behavior, all of which were reported in previous research to contribute to depression. A sample of 510 gay men was recruited through the Internet. The integrated model was tested using half of the sample and validated with the other half. Significant zero order correlations between the gender-related personality traits and depressive symptoms were mediated by unassured-submissive behavior and self-discrepancies in agency. Recalled peer harassment was linked directly with depressive symptoms and indirectly through unassured-submissive interpersonal behavior.

Adolescent psychological and academic adjustment as a function of discrepancies between actual and ideal self-perceptions

Actual-ideal discrepancies are associated with adolescent emotional distress and there is evidence that the size of discrepancies matters. However, the direction of discrepancies has not been examined, perhaps due to limitations of widely used self-discrepancy measures. Two hundred and twelve 7th, 9th and 11th grade students (59% female) in a public school in Jamaica described their actual and ideal selves in several different domains--friendship, dating, schoolwork, family, sports, and religion/spirituality--using a Pie measure. Students also completed measures of depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and academic achievement. Discrepancies favoring the ideal self and those favoring the actual self were linked to depressive symptoms, low self-esteem, and poor school grades in the domains of friendship, dating, and schoolwork. Effects were stronger among older adolescents than among younger adolescents. Theories of actual/ideal self-discrepancies have focused on problems arising when the ideal self overshadows the actual self; however, the present study finds that self-discrepancies, regardless of their direction, are a liability. Implications for self-discrepancy measurement, adolescent development, and clinical practice are discussed.

The Relationship Among Work Possible Selves, Socioeconomic Position, and the Psychological Well-Being of Individuals in Early Adulthood

This study examines the relationships among work possible selves, socioeconomic position, gender, and psychological well-being. Participants were college students in early adulthood (N = 201), aged 20 to 35. Work possible selves, a construct based on the theory of possible selves, were examined. The results showed relationships between expectations for the future self in work (expected work possible selves) and socioeconomic position. Results also showed that individuals who report larger discrepancies between hoped-for and expected work possible selves reported lower psychological well-being in terms of satisfaction with life.