Outcome expectations and working alliance may be more important for patients from rural areas during the transition to college life: An exploratory within-patient analysis

ABSTRACTObjective Research has given limited attention to the distinction between patients from rural and urban areas, especially concerning the frequent overlap between rural living and low socio-economic status (SES). To shed more light on this, we explored the differential treatment processes between patients from rural and urban areas.Method Seven hundred and fourteen patients recruited from a university counseling center in China filled out the questionnaires for Outcome Expectation (OE), Session Alliance Inventory (SAI) and Clinical Outcomes in Routine Evaluation-Outcome Measure (CORE-OM) each session. Data was analyzed using the disaggregated cross-lagged panel model and the asymmetric fixed-effect model.Results The findings indicated a reciprocal within-patient relation between OE and SAI for the whole sample. SAI mediated the effect of OE on next-session CORE-OM for patients from rural areas, with a significantly greater indirect effect than for patients from the urban areas. Asymmetric effects were found for OE among patients from urban areas, for whom drops in OE predicted worse next-session CORE-OM more strongly than improvements in OE predicted improved CORE-OM.Conclusion This study provided preliminary evidence for differential OE-alliance-outcome predictions between patients with different SES and affirmed a reciprocal OE-alliance relation in a Chinese sample during the transition period of college.

The Effects of Different Types of Classism on Psychological Outcomes: Preliminary Findings

In interpersonal relationships, people make assumptions about others' social class standing and interact with them based on these assumptions, which constitutes classism. Classism has an adverse impact on people's overall functioning, although scholarly attention on the unique impact of different types of classism, as proposed the Social Class Worldview Model-Revised (SCMW-R; Liu, 2011), has lagged behind. To address this gap in the literature, we explored how different types of classism (i.e., downward, upward, and lateral) can account for unique variance as predictors of psychological outcomes. Overall, our findings indicate that there is a unique impact of different types of classism on psychological outcomes (i.e., stress, anxiety, well-being, attitudes toward mental health care), beyond social status and overall discrimination alone.

Rags and Riches: The Effects of Social Class Diversity on Team Viability

Social class inequality is growing at a record pace. What happens when individuals from different social classes work on the same team? We examined the direct and moderating influences of social class as an underexplored form of diversity on team viability in 132 student project teams. Guided by an overarching framework from the team diversity literature, we explored perspective taking and conflict resolution norms as moderators that may safeguard against the negative effects of social class diversity on team viability. As predicted, teams with a mix of higher and lower social class members who were less able to see their teammates’ points of view or develop open conflict resolution norms reported less desire to work together in the future. Given these promising results and the ongoing importance of social class inequality in organizations, future research should continue to examine social class in a team context.

A Content Analysis of the Counseling Psychology Literature on Religiousness and Spirituality

This study reviewed the literature on religiousness and spirituality (RS) published in three major journals in counseling psychology. We aimed to evaluate (a) the content and methods of RS research and (b) operational definitions of RS constructs and suggestions for research and practice. At Level 1, we reviewed 901 articles that included an RS related word(s) anywhere in the article. At Level 2, we further analyzed 108 empirical studies and 31 conceptual articles that included RS as a study variable or a primary topic. Both quantitative and qualitative (i.e., thematic analysis) methods were used for data analysis. To summarize the key findings, major topics related to RS included mental health, wellbeing, LGBTQ experiences, help-seeking, counseling process, eudaimonic wellbeing, identity, discrimination, and minority stress. Religiousness and spirituality tended to be defined in a dichotomous way. We suggest future directions for research, practice, advocacy, education, and training, building on the holistic, multicultural, and positive premises of counseling psychology.

The Myth of Social Mobility: Subjective Social Mobility and Mental Health

A common assumption is that upward mobility produces positive psychological outcomes. However, status-based identity framework and social class worldview model propose that perceived social mobility in either direction will lead to increased distress. Based on this claim, we examined relations among subjective social mobility, life satisfaction, and mental health using polynomial regression with response surface mapping. In Study 1, groups that experienced both subjective downward and upward mobility reported more depressive symptomatology than groups that remained in middle or upper social statuses in a sample of 567 adults. We did not find significant relations between subjective social mobility and life satisfaction. In Study 2, both groups that experienced subjective downward and upward mobility reported more depressive and academic distress symptomatology than groups that remained in middle or upper social social statuses in a sample of 7,598 clients from college counseling center data. The results provide insights relevant to multicultural counseling and training.

The Mechanism of Socioeconomic Status Effects on Cognition

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a measurement of the sociological and economic statuses of individuals compared to others within the social and economic hierarchies. The common indicators of SES are income, education, and occupation statuses. Recently, researchers have used mixed measurements of SES, such as the MacArthur Scale. Numerous researches have proven the influence of SES on human development. Individuals who are less educated, have lower job status, and earn less or no income are at greater risk of poor health than their higher SES counterparts. SES has also been proven to influence life satisfaction, academic achievement, emotion regulation, cognitive function, and decision-making tendencies. SES has life span influence, which correlates with the level of cognition, rate of cognitive decline, and incidence of Alzheimer's disease among elderly individuals. Besides the individual level of SES, neighborhood SES can also affect cognitive function as an environmental factor. Low-SES individuals exhibit hypoactivation of the executive network and hyperactivation of the reward network, indicating low-SES individuals tend to focus more on monetary issues, while neglecting other non-monetary issues, which is consistent with the scarcity hypothesis.

The paradoxical effects of social class on career adaptability: The role of intolerance of uncertainty

Introduction

As a growth background factor, family social class has far-reaching effects on youth career development. However, we have limited understanding of the role and functional mechanisms of social class in career adaptability. Based on the social cognitive theory of social class, we examine the mediating role of intolerance of uncertainty in the relationship between youths' subjective social class and career adaptability. We also explore the moderating influences of self-esteem.

Methods

Data were collected from a sample consisting of 712 undergraduates (63.2% female) in China.

Results

Results show that subjective social class positively impacts career adaptability via prospective anxiety, and negatively impacts career adaptability via inhibitory anxiety. The intensity of these indirect relationships is contingent on youths' self-esteem.

Discussion

Our study illustrates the complex and paradoxical effects of social class on career adaptability and has important theoretical and practical implications. This study expands the theoretical perspective by bringing in the social cognitive theory of social class, provides novel insight into the complex interaction between individuals and the environment in youth career development, and should provide inspiration for the design of career intervention programs.

The Influence of Family Social Status on Farmer Entrepreneurship: Empirical Analysis Based on Thousand Villages Survey in China

Researchers in the fields of psychology and sociology have demonstrated the profound influence of social status on people’s behavior. Although existing studies show that social status matters, scholars have devoted little attention to how family social status affects individuals’ risk-taking entrepreneurial behavior. In Chinese rural areas, where the idea of “family” is deeply embedded, how family social status affects farmers’ entrepreneurial behavior is still an unsolved question. In this paper, we analyze the impact of family social status on farmer entrepreneurship and investigate the moderating effects of external institutional factors, such as regional policy uncertainty and local family culture. Our findings show that family social status has an important impact on farmers’ risk preferences, therefore affecting their motivation to undertake entrepreneurial behaviors. By inspecting the role of social status at the family level, our study offers important implications for social class and entrepreneurial theorizing.

How organizational politics and subjective social status moderate job insecurity–silence relationships

Drawing upon the conservation of resources theory and self-determination theory, this study examines the subjective social status (SSS) of employees and how it moderates the two-way interaction effect of job insecurity and perceived organizational politics on the types of silence (i.e., acquiescent, and defensive silence [DS]). Using data of about 350 employees in South Korea, it was found that the relationship between job insecurity and employees' acquiescent silence (AS) was stronger for individuals who perceived their organizations as highly political. The results also indicated a three-way interaction between job insecurity, perceived organizational politics, and employees' SSS on employees' AS, such that in a highly political work environment, the relationship between job insecurity and employees' AS was stronger especially for employees with low social status. However, the same pattern did not exist between job insecurity and DS.

Trajectories of health-related quality of life by change pattern of objective and subjective social status

Long-term and cumulative social experiences influence an individual's objective and subjective social status. Social determinants of health are more effectively investigated by longitudinal rather than cross-sectional studies. The primary focus of this study was the prospective effect of socioeconomic transition on health-related quality of life trajectories. The study population were adults over 18 years of age who responded in all nine waves of the Korea Health Panel (2009-2017). Data were analyzed by group-based trajectory modeling to identify health trajectories, and group-based multi-trajectory modeling to investigate combined change patterns of objective and subjective social status (i.e., multi-SES trajectories). To predict the effects of underlying socioeconomic measures on health trajectory group membership, we included these time-stable covariates in trajectory modeling and estimated the risk of belonging to each trajectory based on the measures. The health-related quality of life trajectories showed three patterns during the period 2013 to 2017; 13.7% of individuals had a low and declining health trajectory and the others had a higher stable health trajectory. Four types of multi-SES trajectory were derived during the period 2009 to 2013; the richer had a steeper income slope while there were slight changes in subjective social status among all groups. These combined longitudinal SES patterns in 2009-2013 were strong predictors of subsequent health trajectory group membership in 2013-2017. These findings indicate that rich countries, such as South Korea, may encounter growing income inequality, where individuals become entrenched in income disparity that pins down their perceptions of social position. Over time this rigid social structure will widen the gap in health-related quality of life.

Socioeconomic status and the therapeutic alliance: An empirical investigation using structural equation modeling

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the study was to investigate the associations between client socioeconomic status and the therapeutic alliance.

METHODS

Data on socioeconomic status and different aspects of the therapeutic alliance were obtained from participants currently or recently in psychotherapy and analyzed using structural equation modeling.

RESULTS

The results provided support for a structural equation model where socioeconomic status was positively related to the therapeutic alliance. The study also found that the associations between socioeconomic status and therapeutic alliance was significantly stronger among clients who had received psychodynamic therapy compared to those who had received cognitive behavior therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The results are discussed in relation to research suggesting that clients of lower socioeconomic status are estranged from the psychotherapeutic context, reflecting experiences among the clients both of not being understood and as inferior in relation to their therapist, as well as possible perceptions that such client are less suitable for psychotherapy.

The influence of non-family members in top management teams on research and development investment: Evidence from Chinese family firms

The diversified management ability of the non-family members in the top management teams (TMTs) can significantly increase the research and development (R&D) investment of the family firms. However, existing studies focus on family characteristics. To bridge the gap, this study explored the R&D investment propensity for family firms from the perspective of non-family members’ participation in TMTs. Based on the upper echelons and the socioemotional wealth theory, this paper incorporated the non-economic goals that influence strategic decisions on family firms into the analytical framework. According to the questionnaire data of Chinese private enterprises, the Tobit regression model was used to analyze the influence of family members on R&D investment decisions under non-economic goal orientations. The results indicated that the preference for control and influence among family members weakens the positive effect of non-family managers on R&D investment, while the preferences for status perception and social responsibility strengthen the positive effect.

Adolescent Suicide Ideation, Depression and Self-Esteem: Relationships to a New Measure of Gender Role Conflict

Among 15-24 year olds in Ireland, completed suicide was responsible for 4.1 times more male deaths than female deaths in 2014 (World Health Organization [WHO], 2017). Few international research studies have investigated the relationship between masculinity [as assessed by a measure of gender role conflict (GRC)] and suicide ideation, and none have done so with Irish adolescents. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to investigate the relationships between a new measure of GRC developed specifically for use with Irish adolescents (I-GRCS-A; O'Beaglaoich et al., 2016), and depression, self-esteem, and negative/protective suicide ideation. A sample of 176 adolescent boys (M = 16.9, SD = 0.94) from a non-clinical population participated in the study. Regression analyses and tests of mediation revealed that depression significantly mediated the relationship between GRC and negative suicide ideation, whilst self-esteem and depression significantly mediated the relationship between GRC and positive suicide ideation. Implications and limitations of the current study are outlined and directions for future research are discussed.

Development and Initial Validation of the Perceived Classism Experiences Scale

This article describes the development and initial validation of the Perceived Classism Experiences Scale (PCES), a scale created to measure experiences of classism based on the Social Class Worldview Model. In Study 1, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis on a sample of 309 participants, revealing three distinct factors: Downward Classism, Upward Classism, and Lateral Classism. In Study 2, a confirmatory factor analysis with data from a distinct sample of 341 participants provided further support for the bifactor structure of the PCES. Significant correlations with subjective social status, self-rated health, stress, state and trait anxiety, life satisfaction, and well-being further supported criterion validity of the PCES. The PCES advances on previous scales of classism, as it is theory-driven and it is not restricted to academic environments. We discuss research and practical implications of the PCES.

Intersecting experiences, motivating beliefs: The joint roles of class and race/ethnicity in the development of youths' sociopolitical perceptions and participation

Positioning our analyses within two theoretical frameworks, system justification (SJ) theory and critical consciousness (CC), we examine relationships between social class and endorsement of SJ and CC beliefs and behaviors within a sample of low-income, Latinx and Black youth living in Chicago. We operationalize social class using five indicators: income-to-needs ratio (INR), subjective social status (SSS), financial strain, violence exposure, and neighborhood income. We find that for Black youth, higher INR is related to a greater likelihood of rejecting the status quo. Comparatively, living in a higher income neighborhood is negatively related to and being exposed to violence is positively related to the likelihood of engaging in social change behaviors. A different pattern emerged for Latinx youth where, higher perceived status was positively associated with accepting the status quo and greater exposure to violence was negatively related to youths' perceived ability to make a difference in the world around them.

Elaborating the Connection between Social Class and Classism in College

Scholarship has documented the challenges that face college students of marginalized economic backgrounds, an issue that is relevant for Community Psychology because of the field's commitment to social justice. Community psychologists are concerned with facilitating access to social resources such as education across the full range of social identities. The current study builds on recent research that has identified the key role of classism in students' struggles. We developed a new measure of college student financial stress in order to investigate the relationship between indices of social class (financial stress, subjective social status, and parental education) and indices of classism (institutional, interpersonal, and citational). We also explored whether race or immigration status moderated these relationships in a sample of diverse students (N = 278). Findings show that students' current financial stress has the strongest relationship with classism, and immigration status moderates the exposure to citational classism. Specifically, we found evidence for perpetuation of classism among U.S. born students higher on the social class ladder. Implications for future research include the importance of considering multiple domains of social class, studying social class in a context-specific way, and differentiating dimensions of classism. Findings also suggest that financial stress is an important focus in the work to support marginalized students, and that classist narratives need to be addressed among students of higher social class.

Social Class, Classism, Stigma, and College Students’ Attitudes Toward Counseling

This study tested two competing theoretically and empirically derived models of college students’ attitudes toward seeking counseling. It extends the literature in this area by assessing the influence of objective and subjective social class, classism, and stigma on attitudes. We used structural equation modeling to analyze self-reported archival data from 2,230 incoming college students at a large, public research university in the Eastern United States. The results demonstrated the superiority of the direct and indirect effects of social class over the competing indirect effects model of social class. The results further indicated that objective social class related to attitudes toward seeking professional help indirectly through subjective social class, classism, and stigma. Finally, the results also showed that objective social class, subjective social class, and classism operated differently in the model. We discuss study limitations, future directions for research, and recommendations for practice.

Access to Decent and Meaningful Work in a Sexual Minority Population

People who identify as sexual minorities consistently face barriers to decent and meaningful employment, especially when coupled with additional constraints such as low socioeconomic status or marginalization experiences. Drawing from the psychology of working theory as our theoretical framework, this study examined the relations of economic constraints (social class) and marginalization (negative sexual minority workplace climate) to work volition, decent work, and meaningful work with a sample of working adults identifying with sexual minority identities. Consistent with hypotheses, social class and workplace climate indirectly predicted decent work, via work volition, and workplace climate also directly predicted decent work. Decent work and work volition were each direct predictors of meaningful work and decent work partially mediated the relation of work volition to meaningful work. Results highlight the importance of advocacy and adequate workplace supports for sexual minority individuals.

Defining Social Class Across Time and Between Groups

We examined changes over four decades and between ethnic groups in how people define their social class. Changes included the increasing importance of income, decreasing importance of occupational prestige, and the demise of the “Victorian bargain,” in which poor people who subscribed to conservative sexual and religious norms could think of themselves as middle class. The period also saw changes (among Whites) and continuity (among Black Americans) in subjective status perceptions. For Whites (and particularly poor Whites), their perceptions of enhanced social class were greatly reduced. Poor Whites now view their social class as slightly but significantly lower than their poor Black and Latino counterparts. For Black respondents, a caste-like understanding of social class persisted, as they continued to view their class standing as relatively independent of their achieved education, income, and occupation. Such achievement indicators, however, predicted Black respondents’ self-esteem more than they predicted self-esteem for any other group.

Conflitos Familiares e Práticas Educativas Parentais como Preditores de Dependência de Internet

Resumo Esta pesquisa objetivou analisar o efeito preditor dos motivos de conflito entre pais e filhos, do conflito interparental e das práticas educativas parentais para a dependência de internet (DI) em jovens. A amostra foi constituída por 200 indivíduos (152 meninas e 48 meninos), com idades de 15 a 24 anos, 85,5% residentes no Rio Grande do Sul e 14,5% em outros estados brasileiros. Os participantes responderam individualmente ao protocolo disponível on-line. Os resultados indicaram como preditores os conflitos sobre a internet com o pai, a ameaça do conflito interparental, os conflitos sobre internet com a mãe e a prática de apoio emocional paterno. Juntas, essas variáveis explicaram 21,2% da dependência de internet. Os resultados corroboram estudos internacionais e indicam que as variáveis familiares investigadas têm um efeito considerável na predição da DI, tendo em vista que esse é um fenômeno complexo e de natureza multifatorial.

The State of SCCT Research in Relation to Social Class

This article provides an overview of 47 empirical studies of social cognitive career theory (SCCT) and recent SCCT-based models with a focus on social class and socioeconomic status (SES). We summarize the findings across the studies according to (1) the use of social class or SES as a study variable and (2) low-SES samples based on demographic data. We provide an assessment of the current state of SCCT research on social class and offer directions for advancing SCCT theory and research with attention to how social class can be conceptualized and operationalized within SCCT.

Exploration and Validation of the Differential Status Identity Scale

In response to the developing critique of traditional sociological measures of social class, the Differential Status Identity Scale (DSIS) was developed. The DSIS is a measure designed to tap the psychological impact on the individual of belonging to a particular social status. Internal consistency reliability and construct, convergent, and criterion validity of the DSIS were examined for a sample of 454 college students. The present data lent much support to DSIS as a new psychological measure of social status.

Rural Appalachian Youth’s Vocational/Educational Postsecondary Aspirations

This study investigates the relationship between postsecondary aspirations and vocational/educational self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, perceived educational barriers, and sources of support among a sample of rural Appalachian high school students. Using Social Cognitive Career Theory as the theoretical framework, vocational/educational aspirations are examined in terms of four specific postsecondary pathways common to rural Appalachian students (work, vocational technical, bachelor’s only, and professional). Results indicated vocational/educational self-efficacy beliefs, college outcome expectations, likelihood of encountering barriers to postsecondary education, and socioeconomic status contribute significantly to the discriminant function predicting the post-secondary pathways. This research extends previous work in this area by examining an understudied group, rural Appalachian adolescents. Implications of the results and suggestions for future research are provided.

Self-Efficacy and Vocational Outcome Expectations for Adolescents of Lower Socioeconomic Status: A Pilot Study

Relationships between contextual support, perceived educational barriers, and vocational/educational self-efficacy and outcome expectations were examined for a group of 114 ninth graders from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Results of this exploratory pilot study indicated that sibling and peer support accounted for a significant amount of variance in vocational/educational self-efficacy beliefs. Vocational/educational self-efficacy beliefs also significantly predicted vocational outcome expectations, and contextual supports and barriers did not account for any unique variance associated with vocational outcome expectations. Results are discussed in relation to social cognitive career theory. Implications for counseling and future research are presented.

Addressing Social Class and Classism in Vocational Theory and Practice

The emancipatory communitarian approach to vocational development is congruent with previous calls to counseling psychologists to be oriented to social justice in their research and practice. However, even in the current emancipatory communitarian approach, an implicit upward mobility bias favors some vocations. To help understand how to better apply the emancipatory communitarian approach, a social class and classism framework is incorporated to explore how upward mobility bias distorts and ignores negative aspects of higher status and higher prestige jobs and does not recognize potential positive aspects of lower status and working-class jobs.

From Whence We Came

As Whiston and Keller’s integrative review illuminates, several contextual factors (e.g., particularly sex and race) have begun to receive attention in the past 20 years in the career development literature. Their review also demonstrates that social class and socioeconomic status (SES), as contextual variables, have not. Authors of this reaction hypothesizeaboutwhy this maybe the case. They alsoarguefor the importanceof investigating the entire spectrum of social class—lower, middle, and upper. In addition, recent methodological advances, such as the social class worldview model and instrumentation, which emphasize the potential power of subjective perceptions of class, are also highlighted. The authors urge us to go beyond merely acknowledging our lack of understanding of this potentially critical variable to developing a rigorous research agenda that places social class and SES variables at the core.

Class at the Intersection of Race and Gender

Consistent with psychology’s call to action for an inclusive and intentional focus on social class, we conducted a content analysis examining class variables relative to race and gender variables in articles over a 15-year period in The Counseling Psychologist and the Journal of Counseling Psychology. Articles were classified by degree of inclusion of these variables, resulting in three categories: mentioned, integrated, and primary. Despite the recent trend toward class inclusion, only 560 of 1,440 studies (39%) included all three variables at any level. Articles where all variables were “Primary” comprised only 1.9% ( n = 28) of the articles we reviewed. Using a qualitative content analysis and intersectionality lens, only 15 of the 28 studies thoroughly integrated class, race, and gender variables. Results highlight a recent, significant increase in attention to class issues, as well as the continued need to place class analysis on par with other important diversity variables. Implications are discussed.

Integrating Service Learning and Difficult Dialogues Pedagogy to Advance Social Justice Training

The integration of service learning and difficult dialogues pedagogy is one avenue for enhancing counseling psychology social justice training. We provide an illustration of this integrative model including advocacy and systems perspectives, and propose that the model can be applied to other service learning foci within counseling psychology training. The article presents an ongoing project that provides counseling graduate students the opportunity to implement skills in career and employment counseling with homeless and near homeless individuals, as well as to develop greater cultural sensitivity and humility. The model provides a structural framework for understanding poverty, homelessness, and bureaucratic systems of care as essential to knowledge, awareness, and skill development for social justice advocacy regarding social class and economic inequalities. Difficult dialogues are incorporated during pre-service, engagement, and debriefing stages of the training experience as a means of promoting best practices for social justice training in counseling psychology.

Examining Social Class and Work Meaning Within the Psychology of Working Framework

In this article, we used the psychology of working framework to examine how social class relates to the experience of meaningful work with two samples of working adults. In Study 1, participants in higher social classes were more likely to experience work meaning than people in lower social classes. Regardless of class, participants reported serving others or contributing to the greater good as the primary source of their work’s meaning. In Study 2, we used a latent, multiple mediator model to test whether the three components of work volition mediated the relation between social class and work meaning. The model was a good fit to the data and partially supported our hypotheses. Specifically, volition and financial constraints fully mediated the relation between social class and work meaning, suggesting that social class may be linked to work meaning due to increased volition and decreased financial constraints.

Contributions of Social Status and Family Support to College Students’ Career Decision Self-Efficacy and Outcome Expectations

The purpose of this study was to better understand the roles of social status and family support in the career decision making of young adults in college. We tested a path model predicting career decision self-efficacy and career-related outcome expectations in a sample of 270 male and female undergraduate students. Predictor variables included family of origin socioeconomic status, perceived social status, perceived family support, and intentional family career-related interactions. The sample was randomly split into a calibration sample and a validation sample. Based on a path analysis with the calibration sample, the hypothesized model was modified, and a multiple group analysis was used to test for model invariance for the revised model. The results of this study suggest that both family status and family support are associated with social cognitive career development outcomes. Implications for both research and practice are discussed.

Career Barriers and Coping Efficacy Among Native American Students

This study examined the relationship between career barriers (low perceived social status [PSS], experiences with personal and systemic classism, and general ethnic discrimination) and college outcome expectations (COEs) among a sample of 121 Native American postsecondary students. Self-efficacy for coping with career barriers was tested as a mediator of these relationships. Results indicated that lower PSS and more experiences with both personal and systemic classism related to lower COEs, and that coping efficacy for career barriers fully mediated these relationships. Contrary to expectations, experiences with ethnic discrimination was unrelated to COEs. Implications for future research and career counseling with Native American students are discussed.

Associations among physician advice, physical activity, and socio-demographic groups in older Spanish adults

This study examined the relationship between medical advice to engage in physical activity with type of demand required by physical activity and demographic variables. A cross-sectional study was developed, featuring a questionnaire on physicians' advice, and type of demand. The questionnaire was completed by a probability and nationwide sample of older adults in Spain (n = 933, M = 74.1, range 65-93), randomly selected using multistage sampling. More physically active older adults have, more often than the less active, received physicians' advice to engage in physical activity. There is a significant relationship between medical advice and type of demand (p < .01) and age (p < .05). However, no relationship was found between physician medical advice and gender, social class, or income. Physicians can effectively promote physical activity among sedentary older adults through appropriate advice. Consequently, health authorities should promote physicians' advising older patients to pursue physical activity.

Development and Exploration of the Experiences With Classism Scale

The examination of barriers in relation to college students’ vocational choice and development is an important area of research, but the barrier of classism is relatively underexamined. This may be due to the deficiencies in measurement, so we describe herein the development of a new measure, the Experiences with Classism scale (EWCS). The EWCS was developed to extend prior qualitative work that highlighted the need to consider experiences with classism in the lives of undergraduate students. Results provided initial evidence for the usefulness of the EWCS to measure undergraduate students’ experiences with classism at a personal and systemic level. Across two studies, the EWCS was demonstrated to have high internal consistency reliability, to have a stable factor structure consisting of two factors, to correlate as expected with relevant demographic variables, and to fit within a nomological network of convergent and discriminant constructs. The EWCS was also demonstrated to predict self-reported experiences of depression, anxiety, stress, self-esteem, and psychological wellness. Implications for further research and practice are suggested.