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Pan Y, Frisson S, Federmeier KD, Jensen O. Early parafoveal semantic integration in natural reading. eLife 2024; 12:RP91327. [PMID: 38968325 PMCID: PMC11226228 DOI: 10.7554/elife.91327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans can read and comprehend text rapidly, implying that readers might process multiple words per fixation. However, the extent to which parafoveal words are previewed and integrated into the evolving sentence context remains disputed. We investigated parafoveal processing during natural reading by recording brain activity and eye movements using MEG and an eye tracker while participants silently read one-line sentences. The sentences contained an unpredictable target word that was either congruent or incongruent with the sentence context. To measure parafoveal processing, we flickered the target words at 60 Hz and measured the resulting brain responses (i.e. Rapid Invisible Frequency Tagging, RIFT) during fixations on the pre-target words. Our results revealed a significantly weaker tagging response for target words that were incongruent with the previous context compared to congruent ones, even within 100ms of fixating the word immediately preceding the target. This reduction in the RIFT response was also found to be predictive of individual reading speed. We conclude that semantic information is not only extracted from the parafovea but can also be integrated with the previous context before the word is fixated. This early and extensive parafoveal processing supports the rapid word processing required for natural reading. Our study suggests that theoretical frameworks of natural reading should incorporate the concept of deep parafoveal processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Pan
- Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of BirminghamBirminghamUnited Kingdom
| | - Steven Frisson
- Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of BirminghamBirminghamUnited Kingdom
| | - Kara D Federmeier
- Department of Psychology, Program in Neuroscience, and the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of IllinoisChampaignUnited States
| | - Ole Jensen
- Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of BirminghamBirminghamUnited Kingdom
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2
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Zhang L, Kang L, Chen W, Xie F, Warrington KL. Parafoveal Processing of Orthography, Phonology, and Semantics during Chinese Reading: Effects of Foveal Load. Brain Sci 2024; 14:512. [PMID: 38790490 PMCID: PMC11119660 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14050512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The foveal load hypothesis assumes that the ease (or difficulty) of processing the currently fixated word in a sentence can influence processing of the upcoming word(s), such that parafoveal preview is reduced when foveal load is high. Recent investigations using pseudo-character previews reported an absence of foveal load effects in Chinese reading. Substantial Chinese studies to date provide some evidence to show that parafoveal words may be processed orthographically, phonologically, or semantically. However, it has not yet been established whether parafoveal processing is equivalent in terms of the type of parafoveal information extracted (orthographic, phonological, semantic) under different foveal load conditions. Accordingly, the present study investigated this issue with two experiments. Participants' eye movements were recorded as they read sentences in which foveal load was manipulated by placing a low- or high-frequency word N preceding a critical word. The preview validity of the upcoming word N + 1 was manipulated in Experiment 1, and word N + 2 in Experiment 2. The parafoveal preview was either identical to word N + 1(or word N + 2); orthographically related; phonologically related; semantically related; or an unrelated pseudo-character. The results showed robust main effects of frequency and preview type on both N + 1 and N + 2. Crucially, however, interactions between foveal load and preview type were absent, indicating that foveal load does not modulate the types of parafoveal information processed during Chinese reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- Intelligent Laboratory of Child and Adolescent Mental Health and Crisis Intervention of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Normal University, Wucheng Distract, Jinhua 321004, China; (L.Z.); (L.K.); (W.C.)
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Wucheng District, Jinhua 321004, China
| | - Liangyue Kang
- Intelligent Laboratory of Child and Adolescent Mental Health and Crisis Intervention of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Normal University, Wucheng Distract, Jinhua 321004, China; (L.Z.); (L.K.); (W.C.)
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Wucheng District, Jinhua 321004, China
| | - Wanying Chen
- Intelligent Laboratory of Child and Adolescent Mental Health and Crisis Intervention of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Normal University, Wucheng Distract, Jinhua 321004, China; (L.Z.); (L.K.); (W.C.)
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Wucheng District, Jinhua 321004, China
| | - Fang Xie
- Intelligent Laboratory of Child and Adolescent Mental Health and Crisis Intervention of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Normal University, Wucheng Distract, Jinhua 321004, China; (L.Z.); (L.K.); (W.C.)
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Wucheng District, Jinhua 321004, China
| | - Kayleigh L. Warrington
- School of Psychology and Vision Sciences, University of Leicester, George Davies Centre, Lancaster Road, Leicester LE1 7HA, UK
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3
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Wu Y, Luo C, Wang Z, Xie H, Huang Y, Su Y. A further specification of the effects of font emphasis on reading comprehension: Evidence from event-related potentials and neural oscillations. Mem Cognit 2024; 52:225-239. [PMID: 37715010 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-023-01457-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023]
Abstract
The attention hypothesis, which assumes that font emphasis captures readers' attention, is usually used to explain the mechanism by which such emphasis operates. This study further delineates the attention hypothesis by investigating the ways in which font emphasis captures attention and its effects on the integration of emphasized information into the previous context. We computed event-related potentials and frequency band-specific electroencephalographic power changes occurring while participants read sentences containing critical words that were either emphasized (i.e., displayed in a color different from the other words in the sentence) or not (i.e., shown in the same color as the rest of the sentence) and semantically congruent with prior words or not. The results showed that the emphasized words (as compared to control words) elicited a reduced N1 and increased P2, indicating that font emphasis reduced familiarity-based visuo-orthographic processing and instead increased controlled attentional processing. We also observed greater P300 and power decreases in the alpha and beta frequency range in response to critical words in the emphasized condition, suggesting that font emphasis enhances focal attention to promote a fuller integration of information into the sentence context. Furthermore, relative to the control condition, the emphasized condition induced delta and theta power increases for the incongruent words. These results suggest that font emphasis increases the efficiency of glyph processing, which facilitates lexical access.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Wu
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, 1 Keji Road, Fuzhou, 350117, Fujian, China.
| | - Cuixin Luo
- Department of Preschool Education, Jiangmen Preschool Education College, 1 Chaocui Road, Jiangmen, 529020, Guangdong, China.
| | - Zhenxing Wang
- Concord University College Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Hanying Xie
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, 1 Keji Road, Fuzhou, 350117, Fujian, China
| | - Yajing Huang
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, 1 Keji Road, Fuzhou, 350117, Fujian, China
| | - Yankui Su
- College of Foreign Languages, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
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Maulina D, Irwanda DY, Audinia S, Nandini SP, Indirasari DT. How supplementary sign features can improve traffic safety among motorcyclists? The effect of capitalization and information length on road sign comprehension. TRAFFIC INJURY PREVENTION 2023; 24:707-715. [PMID: 37676065 DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2023.2250494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Supplementary signs are essential to improve riders' understanding of road signs. In order to attract the rider's attention and ensure the information on the supplementary sign is effectively delivered, a study on the effective ways to display the information in the supplementary sign is needed. The current study examined the effects of capitalization and information length in supplementary signs on road sign comprehension among riders. METHOD A randomized 2 (capitalization: all letters capitalized vs the first letter capitalized) × 2 (information length: long vs. short) factorial design experiment was conducted on 131 young motorcyclists in the Jakarta area. Road sign comprehension was measured using sign comprehension time and sign comprehension level. RESULT A 2 × 2 factorial ANOVA analysis showed a significant effect of information length on sign comprehension time: less information in supplementary signs can increase sign comprehension time. Additionally, a significant interaction was found between capitalization and information length on sign comprehension level: sign comprehension levels would be improved if supplementary signs were presented with capitalization at the beginning of each word and had a long information length. CONCLUSION This study suggests that there is a need to consider the capitalization and length of information in designing supplementary traffic signs. The effective design of supplementary signs could help riders to comprehend the road sign quickly and accurately, thus improving traffic safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dewi Maulina
- Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
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5
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Antúnez M, Milligan S, Hernández-Cabrera JA, Barber HA, Schotter ER. Semantic parafoveal processing in natural reading: Insight from fixation-related potentials & eye movements. Psychophysiology 2021; 59:e13986. [PMID: 34942021 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Prior research suggests that we may access the meaning of parafoveal words during reading. We explored how semantic-plausibility parafoveal processing takes place in natural reading through the co-registration of eye movements (EM) and fixation-related potentials (FRPs), using the boundary paradigm. We replicated previous evidence of semantic parafoveal processing from highly controlled reading situations, extending their findings to more ecologically valid reading scenarios. Additionally, and exploring the time-course of plausibility preview effects, we found distinct but complementary evidence from EM and FRPs measures. FRPs measures, showing a different trend than EM evidence, revealed that plausibility preview effects may be long-lasting. We highlight the importance of a co-registration set-up in ecologically valid scenarios to disentangle the mechanisms related to semantic-plausibility parafoveal processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martín Antúnez
- Cognitive Psychology Department, Universidad de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Sara Milligan
- Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | | | - Horacio A Barber
- Cognitive Psychology Department, Universidad de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.,Institute for Biomedical Technologies (ITB), Universidad de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.,Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language (BCBL), San Sebastián, Spain
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6
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Eye movements during text reading align with the rate of speech production. Nat Hum Behav 2021; 6:429-442. [PMID: 34873275 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-021-01215-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Across languages, the speech signal is characterized by a predominant modulation of the amplitude spectrum between about 4.3 and 5.5 Hz, reflecting the production and processing of linguistic information chunks (syllables and words) every ~200 ms. Interestingly, ~200 ms is also the typical duration of eye fixations during reading. Prompted by this observation, we demonstrate that German readers sample written text at ~5 Hz. A subsequent meta-analysis of 142 studies from 14 languages replicates this result and shows that sampling frequencies vary across languages between 3.9 Hz and 5.2 Hz. This variation systematically depends on the complexity of the writing systems (character-based versus alphabetic systems and orthographic transparency). Finally, we empirically demonstrate a positive correlation between speech spectrum and eye movement sampling in low-skilled non-native readers, with tentative evidence from post hoc analysis suggesting the same relationship in low-skilled native readers. On the basis of this convergent evidence, we propose that during reading, our brain's linguistic processing systems imprint a preferred processing rate-that is, the rate of spoken language production and perception-onto the oculomotor system.
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7
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Hermena EW, Juma EJ, AlJassmi M. Parafoveal processing of orthographic, morphological, and semantic information during reading Arabic: A boundary paradigm investigation. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254745. [PMID: 34339439 PMCID: PMC8328344 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence shows that skilled readers extract information about upcoming words in the parafovea. Using the boundary paradigm, we investigated native Arabic readers' processing of orthographic, morphological, and semantic information available parafoveally. Target words were embedded in frame sentences, and prior to readers fixating them, one of the following previews were made available: (a) Identity preview; (b) Preview that shared the pattern morpheme with the target; (c) Preview that shared the root morpheme with the target; (d) Preview that was a synonym with the target word; (e) Preview with two of the root letters were transposed thus creating a new root, while preserving all letter identities of the target; (f) Preview with two of the root letters were transposed thus creating a pronounceable pseudo root, while also preserving all letter identities of the target; and (g) Previews that was unrelated to the target word and shared no information with it. The results showed that identity, root-preserving, and synonymous preview conditions yielded preview benefit. On the other hand, no benefit was obtained from the pattern-preserving previews, and significant disruption to processing was obtained from the previews that contained transposed root letters, particularly when this letter transposition created a new real root. The results thus reflect Arabic readers' dependance on morphological and semantic information, and suggest that these levels of representation are accessed as early as orthographic information. Implications for theory- and model-building, and the need to accommodate early morphological and semantic processing activities in more comprehensive models are further discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehab W. Hermena
- Department of Psychology, Cognition and Neuroscience Research Laboratory, College of Natural and Health Sciences, Zayed University, Dubai, UAE
- * E-mail:
| | - Eida J. Juma
- Department of Psychology, Cognition and Neuroscience Research Laboratory, College of Natural and Health Sciences, Zayed University, Dubai, UAE
| | - Maryam AlJassmi
- Department of Psychology, Cognition and Neuroscience Research Laboratory, College of Natural and Health Sciences, Zayed University, Dubai, UAE
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8
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Cross-linguistic differences in parafoveal semantic and orthographic processing. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 83:3183-3200. [PMID: 34312796 PMCID: PMC8550508 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-021-02329-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In this study we investigated parafoveal processing by L1 and late L2 speakers of English (L1 German) while reading in English. We hypothesized that L2ers would make use of semantic and orthographic information parafoveally. Using the gaze contingent boundary paradigm, we manipulated six parafoveal masks in a sentence (Mark found th*e wood for the fire; * indicates the invisible boundary): identical word mask (wood), English orthographic mask (wook), English string mask (zwwl), German mask (holz), German orthographic mask (holn), and German string mask (kxfs). We found an orthographic benefit for L1ers and L2ers when the mask was orthographically related to the target word (wood vs. wook) in line with previous L1 research. English L2ers did not derive a benefit (rather an interference) when a non-cognate translation mask from their L1 was used (wood vs. holz), but did derive a benefit from a German orthographic mask (wood vs. holn). While unexpected, it may be that L2ers incur a switching cost when the complete German word is presented parafoveally, and derive a benefit by keeping both lexicons active when a partial German word is presented parafoveally (narrowing down lexical candidates). To the authors’ knowledge there is no mention of parafoveal processing in any model of L2 processing/reading, and the current study provides the first evidence for a parafoveal non-cognate orthographic benefit (but only with partial orthographic overlap) in sentence reading for L2ers. We discuss how these findings fit into the framework of bilingual word recognition theories.
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9
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Wu Y, Wang Z, Lin W, Ye Z, Lian R. Visual salience accelerates lexical processing and subsequent integration: an eye-movement study. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2021.1879817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Wu
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhenxing Wang
- Concord University College Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wanru Lin
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zengyan Ye
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Rong Lian
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, People’s Republic of China
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10
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Are emojis processed like words?: Eye movements reveal the time course of semantic processing for emojified text. Psychon Bull Rev 2021; 28:978-991. [PMID: 33511541 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-020-01864-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Emojis have many functions that support reading. Most obviously, they convey semantic information and support reading comprehension (Lo, CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11[5], 595-597, 2008; Riordan, Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 75-86, 2017b). However, it is undetermined whether emojis recruit the same perceptual and cognitive processes for identification and integration during reading as do words. To investigate whether emojis are processed like words, we used eye tracking to examine the time course of semantic processing of emojis during reading. Materials consisted of sentences containing a target word (e.g., coffee in the sentence "My tall coffee is just the right temperature") when there was no emoji present and when there was a semantically congruent (i.e., synonymous) emoji (e.g., the cup of coffee emoji, ) or an incongruent emoji (e.g., the beer mug emoji, ) present at the end of the sentence. Similar to congruency effects with words, congruent emojis were fixated for shorter periods and were less likely to be refixated than were incongruent emojis. In addition, congruent emojis were more frequently skipped than incongruent emojis, which suggests that semantic aspects of emoji processing begin in the parafovea. Finally, the presence of an emoji, relative to its absence increased target-word skipping rates and reduced total time on target words. We discuss the implications of our findings for models of eye-movement control during reading.
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11
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Roelke A, Vorstius C, Radach R, Hofmann MJ. Fixation-related NIRS indexes retinotopic occipital processing of parafoveal preview during natural reading. Neuroimage 2020; 215:116823. [PMID: 32289457 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
While word frequency and predictability effects have been examined extensively, any evidence on interactive effects as well as parafoveal influences during whole sentence reading remains inconsistent and elusive. Novel neuroimaging methods utilize eye movement data to account for the hemodynamic responses of very short events such as fixations during natural reading. In this study, we used the rapid sampling frequency of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to investigate neural responses in the occipital and orbitofrontal cortex to word frequency and predictability. We observed increased activation in the right ventral occipital cortex when the fixated word N was of low frequency, which we attribute to an enhanced cost during saccade planning. Importantly, unpredictable (in contrast to predictable) low frequency words increased the activity in the left dorsal occipital cortex at the fixation of the preceding word N-1, presumably due to an upcoming breach of top-down modulated expectation. Opposite to studies that utilized a serial presentation of words (e.g. Hofmann et al., 2014), we did not find such an interaction in the orbitofrontal cortex, implying that top-down timing of cognitive subprocesses is not required during natural reading. We discuss the implications of an interactive parafoveal-on-foveal effect for current models of eye movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andre Roelke
- General and Biological Psychology, University of Wuppertal, Max-Horkheimer-Str. 20, D-42119, Wuppertal, Germany.
| | - Christian Vorstius
- General and Biological Psychology, University of Wuppertal, Max-Horkheimer-Str. 20, D-42119, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Ralph Radach
- General and Biological Psychology, University of Wuppertal, Max-Horkheimer-Str. 20, D-42119, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Markus J Hofmann
- General and Biological Psychology, University of Wuppertal, Max-Horkheimer-Str. 20, D-42119, Wuppertal, Germany
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12
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Payne BR, Stites MC, Federmeier KD. Event-related brain potentials reveal how multiple aspects of semantic processing unfold across parafoveal and foveal vision during sentence reading. Psychophysiology 2019; 56:e13432. [PMID: 31274200 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recent event-related brain potential (ERP) experiments have demonstrated parafoveal N400 expectancy and congruity effects, showing that semantic information can be accessed from words in parafoveal vision (a conclusion also supported by some eye-tracking work). At the same time, it is unclear how higher-order integrative aspects of language comprehension unfold across the visual field during reading. In the current study, we recorded ERPs in a parafoveal flanker paradigm, while readers were instructed to read passively for comprehension or to judge the plausibility of sentences in which target words varied in their semantic expectancy and congruity. We directly replicated prior work showing graded N400 effects for parafoveal viewing, which are then not duplicated when the target words are processed foveally. Critically, although N400 effects were not modulated by task goals, a posteriorly distributed late positive component thought to reflect semantic integration processes was observed to semantic incongruities only in the plausibility judgment task. However, this effect was observed at a considerable delay, appearing only after words had moved into foveal vision. Our findings thus suggest that semantic access can be initiated in parafoveal vision, whereas central foveal vision may be necessary to enact higher-order (and task-dependent) integrative processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brennan R Payne
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.,Center on Aging, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | | | - Kara D Federmeier
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois.,Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois
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13
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Role of consciousness in temporal integration of semantic information. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2018; 17:954-972. [PMID: 28681130 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-017-0525-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies found that word meaning can be processed unconsciously. Yet it remains unknown whether temporally segregated words can be integrated into a holistic meaningful phrase without consciousness. The first four experiments were designed to examine this by sequentially presenting the first three words of Chinese four-word idioms as prime to one eye and dynamic Mondrians to the other (i.e., the continuous flash suppression paradigm; CFS). An unmasked target word followed the three masked words in a lexical decision task. Results from such invisible (CFS) condition were compared with the visible condition where the preceding words were superimposed on the Mondrians and presented to both eyes. Lower performance in behavioral experiments and larger N400 event-related potentials (ERP) component for incongruent- than congruent-ending words were found in the visible condition. However, no such congruency effect was found in the invisible condition, even with enhanced statistical power and top-down attention, and with several potential confounding factors (contrast-dependent processing, long interval, no conscious training) excluded. Experiment 5 demonstrated that familiarity of word orientation without temporal integration can be processed unconsciously, excluding the possibility of general insensitivity of our paradigm. The overall result pattern therefore suggests that consciousness plays an important role in semantic temporal integration in the conditions we tested.
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14
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Warrington KL, McGowan VA, Paterson KB, White SJ. Effects of aging, word frequency, and text stimulus quality on reading across the adult lifespan: Evidence from eye movements. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018; 44:1714-1729. [PMID: 29672115 PMCID: PMC6233613 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Reductions in stimulus quality may disrupt the reading performance of older adults more when compared with young adults because of sensory declines that begin early in middle age. However, few studies have investigated adult age differences in the effects of stimulus quality on reading, and none have examined how this affects lexical processing and eye movement control. Accordingly, we report two experiments that examine the effects of reduced stimulus quality on the eye movements of young (18–24 years), middle-aged (41–51 years), and older (65+ years) adult readers. In Experiment 1, participants read sentences that contained a high- or low-frequency critical word and that were presented normally or with contrast reduced so that words appeared faint. Experiment 2 further investigated effects of reduced stimulus quality using a gaze-contingent technique to present upcoming text normally or with contrast reduced. Typical patterns of age-related reading difficulty (e.g., slower reading, more regressions) were observed in both experiments. In addition, eye movements were disrupted more for older than younger adults when all text (Experiment 1) or just upcoming text (Experiment 2) appeared faint. Moreover, there was an interaction between stimulus quality and word frequency (Experiment 1), such that readers fixated faint low-frequency words for disproportionately longer. Crucially, this effect was similar across all age groups. Thus, although older readers suffer more from reduced stimulus quality, this additional difficulty primarily affects their visual processing of text. These findings have important implications for understanding the role of stimulus quality on reading behavior across the lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Victoria A McGowan
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester
| | - Kevin B Paterson
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester
| | - Sarah J White
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester
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15
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Getting ahead of yourself: Parafoveal word expectancy modulates the N400 during sentence reading. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2018; 17:475-490. [PMID: 28101830 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-016-0492-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
An important question in the reading literature regards the nature of the semantic information readers can extract from the parafovea (i.e., the next word in a sentence). Recent eye-tracking findings have found a semantic parafoveal preview benefit under many circumstances, and findings from event-related brain potentials (ERPs) also suggest that readers can at least detect semantic anomalies parafoveally (Barber, Van der Meij, & Kutas, Psychophysiology, 50(1), 48-59, 2013). We use ERPs to ask whether fine-grained aspects of semantic expectancy can affect the N400 elicited by a word appearing in the parafovea. In an RSVP-with-flankers paradigm, sentences were presented word by word, flanked 2° bilaterally by the previous and upcoming words. Stimuli consisted of high constraint sentences that were identical up to the target word, which could be expected, unexpected but plausible, or anomalous, as well as low constraint sentences that were always completed with the most expected ending. Findings revealed an N400 effect to the target word when it appeared in the parafovea, which was graded with respect to the target's expectancy and congruency within the sentence context. Furthermore, when targets appeared at central fixation, this graded congruency effect was mitigated, suggesting that the semantic information gleaned from parafoveal vision functionally changes the semantic processing of those words when foveated.
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Parafoveal preview effects from word N + 1 and word N + 2 during reading: A critical review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Psychon Bull Rev 2018; 24:666-689. [PMID: 27576520 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-016-1147-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The use of gaze-contingent display techniques to study reading has shown that readers attend not only the currently fixated word, but also the word to the right of the current fixation. However, a critical look at the literature shows that a number of questions cannot be readily answered from the available literature reviews on the topic. First, there is no consensus as to whether readers also attend the second word to the right of fixation. Second, it is not clear whether parafoveal processing is more efficient in languages such as Chinese. Third, it is not well understood whether the measured effects are confounded by the properties of the parafoveal mask. In the present study, we addressed these issues by performing a Bayesian meta-analysis of 93 experiments that used the boundary paradigm (Rayner, Cognitive Psychology, 7, 65-81. doi: 10.1016/0010-028590005-5 , 1975). We describe three main findings: (1) The advantage of previewing the second word to the right is modest in size and likely is not centered on zero; (2) Chinese readers do seem to make more efficient use of parafoveal processing, but this is mostly evident in gaze durations; and (3) there are interference effects associated with using different parafoveal masks that roughly increase when the mask is less word-like.
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Schotter ER. Reading Ahead by Hedging Our Bets on Seeing the Future. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.plm.2018.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Eisenbarth W, Pado U, Schriever S, Schötschel D, Feucht N, MacKeben M. [Localization of scotomas in AMD by reading test : Random series of words in standardized format]. Ophthalmologe 2017; 113:754-62. [PMID: 27138118 DOI: 10.1007/s00347-016-0252-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reading performance that can be measured by reading tests depends on whether reading material with or without contextual continuity is used. OBJECTIVE The goal of this study was to create a German version of the SKread test and to evaluate it in a clinical setting. MATERIAL AND METHODS The evaluation of the SKread test was first performed on two groups of visually healthy subjects of different ages: a junior group of 25 persons with ages between 20 and 30 years (mean = 25.84 years, SD ± 2.41 years) and a senior group of 25 persons with ages between 51 and 84 years (mean = 62.40 ± 8.46 years). The same measurements were also performed on a group of 18 patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) with ages between 75 and 95 years (mean = 81.89 ± 5.48 years). The reading performance was also measured using Radner charts. RESULTS Using reading material without syntactic continuity considerably slowed down the reading speed and increased the error rate. Median reading rates of 11.53 characters/s (CPS) for the junior group and 8.96 CPS for the senior group were clearly lower than those for the Radner charts (22.02 CPS and 18.48 CPS, respectively). In the AMD patients, a statistical analysis of the error rates showed a highly significant difference between the Radner charts and the SKread test (p = 0.00014). Furthermore, by analyzing the errors made in the SKread test information could be obtained about the position of central scotomas. The test-retest reliability of the SKread was very good. CONCLUSION Information about the position of a central scotoma can be acquired by using the SKread test and an analysis of reading errors, which can augment effective clinical monitoring in AMD and subsequent visual rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Eisenbarth
- Hochschule München, Lothstr. 34, 80335, München, Deutschland.
| | - U Pado
- Fachgebiet Computerlinguistik, Hochschule für Technik Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Deutschland
| | - S Schriever
- Hochschule München, Lothstr. 34, 80335, München, Deutschland
| | - D Schötschel
- Hochschule München, Lothstr. 34, 80335, München, Deutschland
| | - N Feucht
- Augenklinik und Poliklinik des Klinikum rechts der Isar der TU München, München, Deutschland
| | - M MacKeben
- The Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Rayner K, Schotter ER, Masson MEJ, Potter MC, Treiman R. So Much to Read, So Little Time: How Do We Read, and Can Speed Reading Help? Psychol Sci Public Interest 2017; 17:4-34. [PMID: 26769745 DOI: 10.1177/1529100615623267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The prospect of speed reading--reading at an increased speed without any loss of comprehension--has undeniable appeal. Speed reading has been an intriguing concept for decades, at least since Evelyn Wood introduced her Reading Dynamics training program in 1959. It has recently increased in popularity, with speed-reading apps and technologies being introduced for smartphones and digital devices. The current article reviews what the scientific community knows about the reading process--a great deal--and discusses the implications of the research findings for potential students of speed-reading training programs or purchasers of speed-reading apps. The research shows that there is a trade-off between speed and accuracy. It is unlikely that readers will be able to double or triple their reading speeds (e.g., from around 250 to 500-750 words per minute) while still being able to understand the text as well as if they read at normal speed. If a thorough understanding of the text is not the reader's goal, then speed reading or skimming the text will allow the reader to get through it faster with moderate comprehension. The way to maintain high comprehension and get through text faster is to practice reading and to become a more skilled language user (e.g., through increased vocabulary). This is because language skill is at the heart of reading speed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego
| | | | | | - Mary C Potter
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Rebecca Treiman
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis
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Schotter ER, Jia A. Semantic and plausibility preview benefit effects in English: Evidence from eye movements. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2016; 42:1839-1866. [PMID: 27123754 PMCID: PMC5085893 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Theories of preview benefit in reading hinge on integration across saccades and the idea that preview benefit is greater the more similar the preview and target are. Schotter (2013) reported preview benefit from a synonymous preview, but it is unclear whether this effect occurs because of similarity between the preview and target (i.e., integration), or because of contextual fit of the preview-synonyms satisfy both accounts. Studies in Chinese have found evidence for preview benefit for words that are unrelated to the target, but are contextually plausible (Yang, Li, Wang, Slattery, & Rayner, 2014; Yang, Wang, Tong, & Rayner, 2012), which is incompatible with an integration account but supports a contextual fit account. Here, we used plausible and implausible unrelated previews in addition to plausible synonym, antonym, and identical previews to further investigate these accounts for readers of English. Early reading measures were shorter for all plausible preview conditions compared to the implausible preview condition. In later reading measures, a benefit for the plausible unrelated preview condition was not observed. In a second experiment, we asked questions that probed whether the reader encoded the preview or target. Readers were more likely to report the preview when they had skipped the word and not regressed to it, and when the preview was plausible. Thus, under certain circumstances, the preview word is processed to a high level of representation (i.e., semantic plausibility) regardless of its relationship to the target, but its influence on reading is relatively short-lived, being replaced by the target word, when fixated. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Annie Jia
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego
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Schotter ER, Leinenger M. Reversed preview benefit effects: Forced fixations emphasize the importance of parafoveal vision for efficient reading. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2016; 42:2039-2067. [PMID: 27732044 DOI: 10.1037/xhp0000270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Current theories of eye movement control in reading posit that processing of an upcoming parafoveal preview word is used to facilitate processing of that word once it is fixated (i.e., as a foveal target word). This preview benefit is demonstrated by shorter fixation durations in the case of valid (i.e., identical or linguistically similar) compared with invalid (i.e., dissimilar) preview conditions. However, we suggest that processing of the preview can directly influence fixation behavior on the target, independent of similarity between them. In Experiment 1, unrelated high and low frequency words were used as orthogonally crossed previews and targets and we observed a reversed preview benefit for low frequency targets-shorter fixation durations with an invalid, higher frequency preview compared with a valid, low frequency preview. In Experiment 2, the target words were replaced with orthographically legal and illegal nonwords and we found a similar effect of preview frequency on fixation durations on the targets, as well as a bimodal distribution in the illegal nonword target conditions with a denser early peak for high than low frequency previews. In Experiment 3, nonwords were used as previews for high and low frequency targets, replicating standard findings that "denied" preview increases fixation durations and the influence of target properties. These effects can be explained by forced fixations, cases in which fixations on the target were shortened as a consequence of the timing of word recognition of the preview relative to the time course of saccade programming to that word from the prior one. That is, the preview word was (at least partially) recognized so that it should have been skipped, but the word could not be skipped because the saccade to that word was in a nonlabile stage. In these cases, the system preinitiates the subsequent saccade off the upcoming word to the following word and the intervening fixation is short. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Vasilev MR, Angele B. Parafoveal preview effects from word N + 1 and word N + 2 during reading: A critical review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Psychon Bull Rev 2016. [PMID: 27576520 DOI: 10.1016/0010-028590005-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The use of gaze-contingent display techniques to study reading has shown that readers attend not only the currently fixated word, but also the word to the right of the current fixation. However, a critical look at the literature shows that a number of questions cannot be readily answered from the available literature reviews on the topic. First, there is no consensus as to whether readers also attend the second word to the right of fixation. Second, it is not clear whether parafoveal processing is more efficient in languages such as Chinese. Third, it is not well understood whether the measured effects are confounded by the properties of the parafoveal mask. In the present study, we addressed these issues by performing a Bayesian meta-analysis of 93 experiments that used the boundary paradigm (Rayner, Cognitive Psychology, 7, 65-81. doi: 10.1016/0010-028590005-5 , 1975). We describe three main findings: (1) The advantage of previewing the second word to the right is modest in size and likely is not centered on zero; (2) Chinese readers do seem to make more efficient use of parafoveal processing, but this is mostly evident in gaze durations; and (3) there are interference effects associated with using different parafoveal masks that roughly increase when the mask is less word-like.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin R Vasilev
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, BH12 5BB, Dorset, UK.
| | - Bernhard Angele
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, BH12 5BB, Dorset, UK
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Semantic information mediates visual attention during spoken word recognition in Chinese: Evidence from the printed-word version of the visual-world paradigm. Atten Percept Psychophys 2016; 78:1267-84. [PMID: 26993126 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-016-1081-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Schotter ER, Lee M, Reiderman M, Rayner K. The effect of contextual constraint on parafoveal processing in reading. JOURNAL OF MEMORY AND LANGUAGE 2015; 83:118-139. [PMID: 26257469 PMCID: PMC4525713 DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2015.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Semantic preview benefit in reading is an elusive and controversial effect because empirical studies do not always (but sometimes) find evidence for it. Its presence seems to depend on (at least) the language being read, visual properties of the text (e.g., initial letter capitalization), the type of relationship between preview and target, and as shown here, semantic constraint generated by the prior sentence context. Schotter (2013) reported semantic preview benefit for synonyms, but not semantic associates when the preview/target was embedded in a neutral sentence context. In Experiment 1, we embedded those same previews/targets into constrained sentence contexts and in Experiment 2 we replicated the effects reported by Schotter (2013; in neutral sentence contexts) and Experiment 1 (in constrained contexts) in a within-subjects design. In both experiments, we found an early (i.e., first-pass) apparent preview benefit for semantically associated previews in constrained contexts that went away in late measures (e.g., total time). These data suggest that sentence constraint (at least as manipulated in the current study) does not operate by making a single word form expected, but rather generates expectations about what kinds of words are likely to appear. Furthermore, these data are compatible with the assumption of the E-Z Reader model that early oculomotor decisions reflect "hedged bets" that a word will be identifiable and, when wrong, lead the system to identify the wrong word, triggering regressions.
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Bélanger NN, Rayner K. What Eye Movements Reveal about Deaf Readers. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2015; 24:220-226. [PMID: 26594098 PMCID: PMC4651440 DOI: 10.1177/0963721414567527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Levels of illiteracy in the deaf populations around the world have been extremely high for decades and much higher than the illiteracy levels found in the general population. Research has mostly focused on deaf readers' difficulties rather than on their strengths, which can then inform reading education. Deaf readers are a unique population. They process language and the world surrounding them mostly via the visual channel and this greatly affects how they read or might learn to read. The study of eye movements in reading provides highly sophisticated information about how words and sentences are processed and our research with deaf readers reveals the importance of their uniqueness.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego
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26
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Tiffin-Richards SP, Schroeder S. Children's and adults' parafoveal processes in German: Phonological and orthographic effects. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2014.999076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon P. Tiffin-Richards
- MPRG Reading Education and Development (REaD), Max Planck Institute for Human Development , Berlin, Germany
| | - Sascha Schroeder
- MPRG Reading Education and Development (REaD), Max Planck Institute for Human Development , Berlin, Germany
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Hoedemaker RS, Gordon PC. It takes time to prime: semantic priming in the ocular lexical decision task. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2014; 40:2179-97. [PMID: 25181368 PMCID: PMC4244277 DOI: 10.1037/a0037677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Two eye-tracking experiments were conducted in which the manual response mode typically used in lexical decision tasks (LDTs) was replaced with an eye-movement response through a sequence of 3 words. This ocular LDT combines the explicit control of task goals found in LDTs with the highly practiced ocular response used in reading text. In Experiment 1, forward saccades indicated an affirmative lexical decision (LD) on each word in the triplet. In Experiment 2, LD responses were delayed until all 3 letter strings had been read. The goal of the study was to evaluate the contribution of task goals and response mode to semantic priming. Semantic priming is very robust in tasks that involve recognition of words in isolation, such as LDT, but limited during text reading, as measured using eye movements. Gaze durations in both experiments showed robust semantic priming even though ocular response times were much shorter than manual LDs for the same words in the English Lexicon Project. Ex-Gaussian distribution fits revealed that the priming effect was concentrated in estimates of tau (τ), meaning that priming was most pronounced in the slow tail of the distribution. This pattern shows differential use of the prime information, which may be more heavily recruited in cases in which the LD is difficult, as indicated by longer response times. Compared with the manual LD responses, ocular LDs provide a more sensitive measure of this task-related influence on word recognition as measured by the LDT.
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Abstract
In contrast to earlier research, evidence for semantic preview benefit in reading has been reported by Hohenstein and Kliegl (Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40, 166-190, 2013) in an alphabetic writing system; they also implied that prior demonstrations of lack of a semantic preview benefit needed to be reexamined. In the present article, we report a rather direct replication of an experiment reported by Rayner, Balota, and Pollatsek (Canadian Journal of Psychology, 40, 473-483, 1986). Using the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm, subjects read sentences that contained a target word (razor), but different preview words were initially presented in the sentence. The preview was identical to the target word (i.e., razor), semantically related to the target word (i.e., blade), semantically unrelated to the target word (i.e., sweet), or a visually similar nonword (i.e., razar). When the reader's eyes crossed an invisible boundary location just to the left of the target word location, the preview changed to the target word. Like Rayner et al. (Canadian Journal of Psychology, 40, 473-483, 1986), we found that fixations on the target word were significantly shorter in the identical condition than in the unrelated condition, which did not differ from the semantically related condition; when an orthographically similar preview had been initially present in the sentence, fixations were shorter than when a semantically unrelated preview had been present. Thus, the present experiment replicates the earlier data reported by Rayner et al. (Canadian Journal of Psychology, 40, 473-483, 1986), indicating evidence for an orthographic preview benefit but a lack of semantic preview benefit in reading English.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA,
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