Relationship between locus of control and anxiety

Locus of Control as a Mediator of the Relationships Between Motivational Systems and Trait Anxiety

The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, first proposed by Gray and later revised, describes three motivational systems: Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), Behavioral Activation System (BAS), and Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS). Studies have shown that high BIS and FFFS activation are positively related to anxiety symptoms, yet the relationship between BAS and anxiety remains unclear. Research data have also suggested that anxiety symptoms occur with the loss of perceived control. Thus, although studies on the direct effect of locus of control (LOC) on trait anxiety have accumulated for many years, the issue of how LOC may mediate the relationship between BIS/BAS/FFFS sensitivity and anxiety has not been addressed. This study aimed to explore the mediating role of LOC orientation on trait anxiety among young adults in association with these three motivational systems. Cross-sectional data were obtained from 422 volunteers. The BIS/BAS Scale, Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Rotter's Internal-External LOC Scale were applied. A series of mediation analyses were performed to estimate total, indirect, and direct effects. The results showed that BIS and FFFS positively predicted trait anxiety. In addition, LOC positively predicted trait anxiety and BIS. The results of the mediation analyses indicated that LOC functioned as a partial mediator between BIS and trait anxiety. This finding revealed that a high BIS level, one of the motivational systems, was associated with external LOC, which in turn contributed to reporting high trait anxiety in young adults. Hence, BIS and external LOC orientation could be suggested as risk factors for trait anxiety. As the external LOC orientation of individuals with high punishment sensitivity increased, their trait anxiety levels also increased. Therefore, it was suggested that it might be useful to be aware that LOC orientations of individuals with BIS sensitivity may pose a risk for trait anxiety.

Bereaved mothers' experience of expressing and donating breast milk: An interpretative phenomenological study

Perinatal loss is a devastating event for any mother. What is often overlooked is a mothers continued ability to lactate following the death of her child. Donor breast milk is a commodity highly sought after given its value for feeding sick babies resident in Neonatal Intensive Care Units. This study aimed to explore the lived experience of mothers who have expressed and donated their breast milk following the loss of their infant. Seven bereaved mothers who donated milk to the Human Milk Bank in Northern Ireland were recruited. These women took part in semistructured interviews, which explored their experiences of perinatal loss and the role that expression/donation played for them in their grief. Their accounts were analysed using a qualitative interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) method. After transcription and analysis, three superordinate themes emerged; (1) fulfilling the mother role; (2) the power of being able to 'Do'; (3) making good from the bad. The stories of these women reflect the independent and individual nature of grief. Each mother gained a great deal of comfort in having the ability to express milk. For some this created a physical connection to their child, for others, it created time alone to process what had happened and for all, it created a sense of autonomy and ownership in what was otherwise a very turbulent time in their lives.

Power posing for paranoia: A double-blind randomised controlled experimental test using virtual reality

Paranoia is theorised to build upon feelings of inferior social rank. Power posing has been shown to increase feelings of power, and hence could reduce paranoia. One hundred participants with current paranoia and 50 individuals without paranoia were recruited. Using a double-blind randomised controlled experimental design, participants twice held powerful or neutral postures before entering neutral virtual reality social environments. In the paranoid sample, those who held a powerful pose did not significantly increase in feelings of power by the end of testing in comparison to controls (group difference = 0.67, C.I. = -1.12; 1.46; p = 0.098), or decrease in paranoia (group difference = -0.23, C.I. = -1.17; 0.72; p = 0.634). In the non-paranoid sample, there was a small significant increase in powerful feelings by the end of testing in the powerful group (group difference = 1.13, C.I. = 0.23; 2.02; p = 0.013), but no significant decrease in paranoia (group difference = -0.71, C.I. = -2.16; 0.74; p = 0.338). Paranoia status was not a modifier on the relationship between condition and feelings of power. We conclude that power posing results in only very small changes in self-reported feelings of power and has no subsequent effect on paranoia.

Relation of Locus of Control to Aspiration Level and to Competitive Anxiety

To determine the relationship between locus of control and competitive anxiety, and locus of control and level of aspiration 36 undergraduates were tested. Each was given Levenson's Locus of Control, Marten's Adult Sport Competition Anxiety Test, and an aspiration test involving tossing at a target. Pearson product-moment correlation indicated internal locus of control was not related to aspiration level, but aspiration level was negatively related to the “powerful others” locus of control. Internal locus of control was negatively related to competitive anxiety and to the external scales. The “powerful others” and “chance” scales were positively related.

Descriptive Statistics, Reliability and Validity of a Short Form of Rotter's Locus of Control Scale Given to Iranian College Students

A short form of Rotter's locus of control scale was administered to two samples of Iranian students. Sample I comprised 305 students in Iranian universities and Sample II consisted of 232 Iranian college students in the USA. Descriptive statistics for each sample are reported. Test-retest reliability over 3 wk. was .84, and the alpha estimates were .82 for both samples. Scores were correlated in expected directions with measures of depression, neuroticism, anxiety, self-esteem, and loneliness.

Comparison of the I-E Scale and a Specific Locus of Control Measure in Predicting Risk-Taking Behavior under Novel Task Conditions

The predictive efficiency of the I-E scale and a specific locus of control measure were compared in a study of the risk-taking behavior of 160 subjects who participated in a novel task. Contrary to Rotter's (1975) predictions, the I-E scale did not demonstrate greater efficiency than the specific locus of control measure in predicting behavior on this novel task.

The Interrelationship of Measures of Manifest Anxiety, Self-Esteem, Locus of Control, and Depression in Children with Behavior Problems

The interrelationships among measures of manifest anxiety, self-esteem, locus of control, and depression were studied among children with behavioral and emotional problems. Six random samples were drawn from a population of children referred because of behavioral problems that interfered with their classroom learning. Each subject was individually administered two of the following four tests: the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS); the Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory for Children, Form B (SEI); the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children (CNS-IE); and the Reynolds Childhood Depression Scale (RCDS). Results indicated that, within this sample, measures of children's depression, external locus of control, and anxiety all were intercorrelated positively to a moderately high level. Measures of self-esteem were correlated significantly and negatively with depression and anxiety, but had little correlation with external locus of control.

Looming vulnerability to threat: a cognitive paradigm for anxiety

The concept that perceived threat or danger is a cognitive antecedent of anxiety is central in clinical psychology, personality psychology, and social psychology. The aim in the current article is to review this concept and present a new conception called the looming vulnerability model. Looming vulnerability is conceptualized as an important cognitive component of threat or danger that elicits anxiety, sensitizes the individual to signs of movement and threat, biases cognitive processing, and makes the anxiety more persistent and less likely to habituate. In addition, it is postulated as a principal theme that discriminates anxiety and focal fears from depression. The looming vulnerability model integrates a disparate collection of findings and integrates the conceptualization of anxiety and fear with ethological and developmental observations. The social-cognitive and evolutionary basis of the sense of looming vulnerability are discussed, as well as its roots in cognitive schemata (fear scripts), its state elicitation by several potential classes of antecedent conditions, and possible treatment implications.

Homework compliance, perceptions of control, and outcome of cognitive-behavioral treatment of social phobia

This study examined the relationship of compliance with homework assignments and posttreatment anxiety in patients who received cognitive-behavioral group therapy (CBGT) for social phobia. Greater homework compliance measured in the first and latter periods of CBGT was associated with lower levels of social interactional anxiety after treatment. Surprisingly, homework compliance during the middle sessions of CBGT was positively related to posttreatment fears of scrutiny and criticism. Perceptions of control in social phobia and their potential effect on homework compliance and the homework compliance/treatment outcome relationship were also examined using the Levenson (Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41, 397-404, 1973) Locus of Control Scale. Social phobics were less likely to believe in their own control over events than a comparison sample of community subjects but attributed greater control over events to other powerful persons. Among patients, higher Internality and lower Powerful Others subscale scores were associated with higher levels of pretreatment anxiety. However, neither subscale was significantly related to measures of homework compliance. Furthermore, when included in multiple regression analyses, neither subscale or its interaction with homework compliance added to the prediction of posttreatment anxiety. Limitations of this study and future research to improve assessment of homework compliance and perceptions of control among social phobic patients are discussed.

Neurotic nucleus and test anxiety

Undergraduate university students (N = 103) participated in a study of the relationship between test anxiety and the variables of trait anxiety, self-esteem, locus of control, mental ability, and gender. Results indicated bivariate associations between total test anxiety and the other measures except for mental ability. Further analyses revealed independent relationships between the "worry" component of test anxiety and the variables of trait anxiety, internality, chance, and mental ability. We also found independent associations between the "emotionality" aspect of test anxiety and the measures of trait anxiety and chance.

Relationship between anxiety and premenstrual syndrome

The relationship between symptoms of the premenstrual syndrome and anxiety was assessed for 68 women. The syndrome as measured by a modified version of the Moos Menstrual Distress Questionnaire, was correlated significantly with trait anxiety, as measured by Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Trait anxiety was correlated with all three subtypes from the questionnaire: behavioral, psychological, and physical, most strongly for the psychological subtype. These findings suggest a role for stress-management training in the treatment of the premenstrual syndrome.

The relationship of locus of control to pain coping strategies and psychological distress in chronic pain patients

Although behavioral scientists have long been interested in how an individual's locus of control relates to coping and adjustment, basic information remains to be gathered on the relevance of locus of control to adaptation to persistent pain. This study examined the relationship of locus of control orientation to pain coping strategies and psychological distress in chronic pain patients. Subjects were 62 chronic pain patients. All patients were administered: (1) the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scales to assess locus of control, (2) the Coping Strategies Questionnaire to evaluate pain coping strategies, and (3) the Symptom Checklist-90 Revised to assess psychological distress. Correlational analyses revealed that patients who viewed outcomes as controlled by chance factors such as fate or luck tended to rely on maladaptive pain coping strategies and rated their abilities to control and decrease pain as poor. They also exhibited greater psychological distress. Regression analyses indicated that patients having a chance orientation toward locus of control were more likely to report depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms and to have higher overall levels of psychological distress. Chance locus of control also predicted greater reliance on diverting attention and praying/hoping in dealing with their pain. In addition, patients high on chance locus of control reported feeling helpless to deal effectively with their pain problem. Clinicians evaluating chronic pain patients need to be aware that patients who view outcomes as controlled by external factors such as chance may have deficits in pain coping strategies and may report greater psychological distress than patients who do not have this locus of control orientation.

The relationship of locus of control, age, and sex to life satisfaction and death anxiety in older persons

The present study examined Rotter's Internal-External (I-E) locus of control (LOC) concept in relation to life satisfaction and death anxiety in an aged population. Age and sex of the individual were also considered. In the case of life satisfaction, a strong sex and a strong locus of control effect were found. For death anxiety, again a strong sex effect was found, but there was also a significant interaction between locus of control and age. The article suggests the need for a life span developmental perspective in LOC research. Studies which explore the influence of life experiences, situational and environmental variables, and their effect on control orientation are also needed.

Locus of control and psychological distress among the aged

A relationship between locus of control and adjustment has been found in many studies of young adults, with externals generally reporting higher levels of psychological distress. However, studies of locus of control and adjustment in the aged have produced conflicting results. This investigation examined the relationship between locus of control and self-reported psychopathology in a sample of 139 residents of a retirement complex. Correlation coefficients were computed for locus of control and each of the nine symptom dimensions of the Brief Symptom Inventory. These analyses were carried out separately for males and for females to determine if locus of control orientation was associated with adjustment for both males and females. Results indicate that locus of control is correlated with self-reported psychopathology for older women but not for older men. These results and those of related investigations are discussed within the context of Rotter's social learning theory.

Anxiety and adjustment levels among the visually and hearing impaired and their relationship to locus of control, cognitive, social, and biographical variables

Forty-five hearing-impaired and 40 visually impaired male residential school children aged 6 to 16 years were administered measures of adjustment, anxiety, and locus of control (LOC). Scores related to intelligence and academic level, teacher and peer acceptance, and biographical variables were also obtained. The findings show that the correlates of anxiety and adjustment differed qualitatively as well as quantitatively between the groups.

Physical training and personality factors as predictors of marathon time and training injury

On the basis of surveys completed by 105 male participants in a popular marathon, a multiple regression analysis was conducted to identify the variables contributing significantly to the prediction of final time. Overall prediction was successful, with R = .896, and training pace was the most important factor in the equation, speedier workouts being associated with faster marathon times. Final time was also related positively to best 10-km race time in the previous 12 mo. and repression-sensitization (faster runners being more sensitized), and negatively to maximum number of training miles in a single week, number of previous marathons completed, and number of days of training lost through illness or injury. Contrary to expectations, locus of control was not related to final time. Only 27% of the runners had lost training time through injury, but a discriminant analysis showed that, compared to those who had avoided this problem, the injured were younger, rested less, ran less in the week prior to the marathon, ran a slightly longer long run but ran it earlier before the race, and ran fewer runs of 20 miles or more. It is suggested that researchers should study the repression-sensitization variable and investigate injury in runners preparing for a marathon.

Adolescent abuse and the development of personal sense of control

The link between adolescent abuse, the adolescent's psychological functioning, and locus of control orientation is explored. Maltreated adolescents experience such problems as low self-esteem, antisocial behavior, and suicidal tendencies. It is argued that the adolescent's locus of control orientation, deriving from his/her experiences in the home, may determine the extent to which the adolescent exhibits problematic behavior and personal maladjustment. Although locus of control in abused adolescents has not been investigated, studies show that individuals who experience the same types of problems evidenced by abused adolescents are more likely to have perceptions of external control. The nature of the relationship between locus of control and abuse may depend upon the duration of the abuse (i.e., long- versus short-term abuse). For example, adolescents who have experienced abusive behavior throughout childhood are expected to be more externally oriented than those adolescents who have been abused for a shorter time. Thus, long-term abused adolescents will be more likely to have perceptions of external control than nonabused adolescents, with short-term abused adolescents falling in the middle. The distinction between short- and long-term abuse in the context of locus of control may be important to consider when designing treatment programs for abused adolescents.

Interaction of test anxiety and locus of control on academic performance

Previous studies of the relationship of test anxiety, locus of control, and academic performance yielded contradictory results. In seeking a remedy for the negative effects of test anxiety, it will be useful to know to what extent the highly test-anxious students assume responsibility for their performance (internal view) and to what extent they believe it to be due to luck, chance, or “the system” (external view). University students enrolled in an upper division psychology course completed the Test Attitude Inventory of Spielberger, et al. and a locus of control measure only of personal control items from Gurin, et al. and of academic control items from Rotter. The students' performance on the course examinations was affected by the interaction of test anxiety and personal locus of control; highly test-anxious students achieved higher mean examination scores if they were also internal, while students low in test anxiety had higher scores if they scored external on locus of control. Studies of the interaction of test anxiety and locus of control on academic performance are needed.

Personality variables in coping with the stress of a spouse's chronic illness

Identified systematically those spouses of male VA hemodialysis patients who are at risk for experiencing difficulties in adapting to their husband's chronic kidney failure and hemodialysis treatment. To this end, an exploration was made of personality variables that might enhance a spouse's ability to cope with the unique stress of living with chronic illness. Fifty-six wives of VA dialysis patients were administered the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (I-E), the Multidimensional Locus of Control Scale (MLC), the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale (MHLC), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Significant relationships were found between I-E scores and all measures of emotional adjustment (state anxiety, trait anxiety, and depression) for the entire sample of spouses in general, and also for a subgroup of home dialysis spouses who were analyzed separately. Results were discussed in terms of the role that locus of control orientation plays in mediating the stress of living with chronic illness, as well as the failure to find relationships between adjustment and the MLC or the area-specific MHLC.

Relationship between locus of control and maladaptive fears

The Rotter I-E Scale and the Fear Survey Schedule were administered to 205 introductory psychology students. All but one of the 89 items on the fear schedule were related to externality and 66 of these correlations reached statistical significance. Over-all fear as reflected in the total score on the schedule was also significantly related to externality ( r = .40, p < .001). Contrary to the hypothesis of Phares (1976), there was no U-shape relationship between locus of control and fear. In general, the results support a linear relationship between externality and fear for college students.

Relationships between locus of control, trait anxiety, and state anxiety: an interactionist perspective

This study examined the relationships among generalized expectancy for internal or external control, situational expectancy of control over aversive stimuli, trait anxiety level, and state anxiety reactivity. Seventy-two male subjects, selected from the upper and lower halves of the distributions of scores from the I-E and STAI A-Trait Scales, were randomly assigned to one of three conditions of expectancy of control over electric shock. Repeated measures of state anxiety were taken at three points in the experiment, and subjects were asked to rate the degree of control they expected to have in avoiding shocks. Results, based upon analyses of variance, were interpreted as strongly supportive of the use of the interactionist model in understanding the manner in which personality trait and situational variables interact in the determination of subject expectancies of control and anxiety reactivity.

Self-consciousness and locus of control

179 college students were classified as internal or external in locus of control on the basis of I-E scores. Self-consciousness scores showed external subjects were more socially anxious than internal subjects.

Perceptual style, locus of control and personality variables among East Indians and blacks in Trinidad

25 black males, 25 East Indian males, 25 black females and 25 East Indian females from the University of the West Indies, Trinidad, were given the Rod-and- frame Test (RFT), the Rotter Internal-External Control Scale (I-E Control Scale), and Edwards' Personal Preference Schedule to ascertain the relationship between these variables, as well as mean differences for males and females of two different subcultures who share the same geographical environment and political entity. Significant sex differences were obtained for the I-E Control Scale scores and for the Edwards' needs of achievement, deference, succorance, dominance and nurtu rance. Ethnic group differences were obtained for the RFT and Edwards' need of order. Interactions of sex and ethnic group were obtained for exhibition, endurance and aggression. No significant correlation was obtained for any group between the RFT and I-E Control Scale. Significant correlations between RFT and Edwards' needs and between I-E Control Scale and Edwards' needs were obtained. The data are interpreted in terms of the child-rearing practices and cultural values of each group.

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between perceptual style, locus of control and personality variables for males and females of two different subcultures who share an over-all culture in a common geographical environment, but differ in reported child-rearing practices and related values and goals.

Witkin et al. (20,21) have investigated the relationship between perceptual style and a variety of appropriately related personality patterns. Perceptually field-depen dent individuals were found to be relatively passive, anxious, lacking in self-confi dence, having little insight and yielding easily to impulsive feelings. Related characteristics were a readiness to conform and a predisposition to have others impose order or structure on situations that were not fully under their control. In contrast, those who were perceptually field-independent seemed to express impulses directly, were active participants in social activities and manifested a level of self-awareness. Witkin concluded that field-independent individuals handled feelings of frustration in a productive and compensatory manner; self-assurance and leadership were generally characteristic of their behaviour.

Elliott (7) concluded that perceptual field-dependency was the result of parental influences, particularly those associated with overprotection and inconsistency in reinforcing behaviour. These findings are supported by further research (5,8) that correlates arbitrary, rigid, authoritarian parents and field-dependent children. When parents were flexible and reasonable, permitting the child some measure of self- determination, the child would be perceptually field-independent.

These studies stimulated further research on the effects of ecology and culture on individual development (2), as well as the influence of the geographical environ ment (4). These investigations showed relationships between an individual's method of organising his perceptual world and the environment he grew up in. They restrict ed themselves, however, to comparing groups living in disparate cultures and geographical areas who had no contact or communication with one another. The question still remains whether the same obtained relationships would be true of representative individuals identified with distinct subcultural values, who had personal contact with each other, communicated in the same language, and lived within a similar overall culture and geographical environment.

That there are other aspects of functioning within one's personal environment which many reflect early formative experiences was suggested by Rotter (17). Sub sequent research demonstrated that an expectancy for internal, as opposed to external, control of reinforcemennt is related to learning and performance in diverse situations. Investigation of the origins of internal-external control orientations (3, 10, 12, 19) concluded that child-rearing practices shaped belief in either internal or external sources as influences in control over one's own fate. These inclinations were also reflected in a variety of corresponding personality traits. MacDonald (14) summarized these conclusions as follows : 1. Internally controlled subjects had parents whom they believed to be supporting (nurturant), and consistent (predict able) and who encouraged children to control their own reinforcements (a measure considered as achievement pressure). Among males, paternal physical punishment was related to internal orientation; 2. externally controlled subjects described their parents as using techniques of overprotection, deprivation of privileges and affective punishment.

In view of these investigations it is hypothesized that this study will reveal some relationship between self-reported personality characteristics and both perceptual style as well as locus of control. Furthermore, the findings should vary with sub cultural values and practices.

Empathy, locus of control and anxiety in college students

To investigate the correlations between empathy, locus of control, and anxiety 59 college students were administered Hogan's (6) empathy scale, Spielberger's (12) State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Rotter's (10) locus of control scale. Empathy correlated significantly with both state (—.36) and trait (—.36) anxiety while locus of control correlated with trait anxiety only (.36). There was no significant correlation between empathy and locus of control. Correlations were discussed with respect to previous research and theoretical implications.

Relationships among locus of control, self-concept, and anxiety

Sixty male alcoholic inpatients were administered the Locus of Control scale (IE), the Activity Preference Questionnaire (APQ), the Manifest Anxiety scale (MAS), and the Tennessee Self Concept scale (TSCS). Ss defined as having an external locus of control appeared significantly more anxious than internal Ss on the MAS; however, no differences were found between groups on the APQ or TSCS scales. The self-report (MAS) and nonobtrusive (APQ) measures of anxiety were not correlated significantly. A differential pattern of correlations was found between the MAS and APQ and TCSC subscale scores. The obtained correlations support the contention that the MAS may measure more accurately a dimension of neuroticism and/or negative self-concept rather than anxiety. Further research appears necessary to investigate the internal consistency and dimensionality of the MAS.

Perceptual and personality variables related to opinion leadership in fashion

102 randomly selected university women were administered measures of opinion leadership in fashion, field dependence, locus of control, and anxiety. Product-moment correlation was used to test the association between variables. Opinion leadership in fashion was positively related to debilitating anxiety and negatively related to facilitating anxiety. External locus of control was positively related to debilitating anxiety and negatively related to facilitating anxiety. No significant correlation was found between opinion leadership in fashion and field dependence or locus of control or between field dependence and locus of control or anxiety.

The relationship of internality-externality, self-acceptance, and self-ideal discrepancies

Internals (n=35) and externals (n=38) responded to Rotter's (12) I-E scale under two sets of instructions: standard (as the kind of persons they really were) and ideal-self instructions (as if they were the types of persons they would like to be) and the self-acceptance questionnaire (4). Results indicated (a) on both instruments the discrepancy between real and ideal-self was significantly larger in externals: (b) the external ideal-self includes an internal locus of control; (c) a significant discriminatory factor between internals and externals is their perceived control over their own destiny and not social institutions. The results were discussed in terms of the relationship of externality to maladjustment, neuroticism, and possible causes for this relationship.

Life stress, locus of control and state and trait anxiety

In a study of the relationships between measures of life stress, locus of control and anxiety, 129 undergraduates were administered Jacobs' Life Change Inventory (Category A), Rotter's Locus of Control questionnaire and Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Highly stressed Ss reported greater state and trait anxiety than Ss of low stress. Highly stressed internals did not differ from highly stressed externals on either anxiety measure, while externals of low stress reported significantly more state anxiety than internals of low stress.

Transcendental meditation and psychological health

15 experienced transcendental meditators and 21 novice meditators were administered Bendig's anxiety scale, Rotter's Locus of Control scale, and Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory of self-actualization. As predicted, experienced meditators were significantly less anxious and more internally controlled than beginning meditators. Likewise, experienced meditators were significantly higher, i.e., more self-actualized, on 7 of Shostrom's 12 subscales. These impressive results are discussed in terms of the psychological health implications of Transcendental Meditation and its potential therapeutic applications.

Locus of control and anxiety in emotionally disturbed children

2 measures of locus of control and two measures of anxiety were administered to 50 emotionally disturbed children. Whether locus of control was significantly related to anxiety was dependent on the measure of anxiety employed. The Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale correlated significantly with both measures of locus of control. However, neither the A-state not the A-trait portion of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children was correlated significantly with locus of control. All measures of anxiety intercorrelated significantly. The magnitude of the correlation between measures of locus of control was small if both assessed the same construct.