A reinforcement analysis of group performance

Religious behaviors as strategies for organizing groups of people: A social contingency analysis

A social contingency analysis of religion is presented, arguing that individual religious behaviors are principally maintained by the many powerful benefits of participating in social groups rather than by any immediate or obvious consequences of the religious behaviors. Six common strategies are outlined that can shape the behaviors of large groups of people. More specifically, religious behavior is shaped and maintained by making already-existing contingencies contingent upon low-probability, but socially beneficial, group behaviors. Many specific examples of religious themes are then analyzed in terms of these common strategies for social shaping, including taboos, rituals, totems, personal religious crises, and symbolic expression. For example, a common view is that people are anxious about life, death, and the unknown, and that the direct function of religious behaviors is to provide escape from such anxiety. Such an explanation is instead reversed-that any such anxiety is utilized or created by groups through having escape contingent upon members performing less probable behaviors that nonetheless provide important benefits to most individual group members. These generalized beneficial outcomes, rather than escape from anxiety, maintain the religious behaviors and this fits with observations that religions typically act to increase anxiety rather than to reduce it. An implication of this theory is that there is no difference in principle between religious and nonreligious social control, and it is demonstrated that the same social strategies are utilized in both contexts, although religion has been the more historically important form of social control.

Age and decline in role-specific feelings of control

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to see if feelings of control over highly valued social roles decline across late life. I also made an effort to see if two types of social support explained age-related decline in control.

METHODS

Harris Interactive of New York conducted interviews with a nationwide longitudinal sample of older adults. Survey questions assessed feelings of control over the most highly valued role, anticipated support (i.e., the belief that support will be forthcoming if needed), and enacted support.

RESULTS

The data suggested that feelings of control over the most highly valued role tend to decline across late life. The results also revealed that anticipated support is associated with a stronger sense of control over time, but I observed this relationship only through age 75. Beyond that point, anticipated support was less helpful. In contrast, enacted support did not appear to help older people maintain a strong sense of role-specific control at any age.

DISCUSSION

Current research has largely been concerned with age-related change in feelings of control over life as a whole. The findings from this study suggest that it may also be helpful to consider control over the most highly valued role while studying this process.

Age, aging, and the sense of control among older adults: a longitudinal reconsideration

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to first estimate the crude cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between age and the sense of control, and then to partition any joint variance attributable to a theoretically specified set of potential confounders.

METHODS

Sense of control was measured at baseline and at each of six bimonthly follow-up interviews among 1,662 patients at two medical centers. Potential confounders were measured at baseline. Analyses include descriptive assessments of level and normative stability, repeated measures analysis of covariance, and hierarchical multiple linear and change score regressions.

RESULTS

Although the sense of control is relatively stable between any two successive waves of data collection, significant gradual changes are observed over a 1-year period. Compelling evidence is found for statistically and substantively significant associations between age and the sense of control at baseline, and between age and changes in the sense of control over time. The only other major predictor of the sense of control is mental well-being.

DISCUSSION

Longitudinal studies with repeated assessments over prolonged observation periods are now needed to elucidate age-related trajectories in the sense of control.

9-11, personal stress, mental health, and sense of control among older adults

OBJECTIVES

We assessed whether the events of 9-11 affected the personal stress, mental health, or sense of control of older adults participating in an ongoing longitudinal study, and whether baseline characteristics were associated with the magnitude of any such changes.

METHODS

Personal stress, mental health, and sense of control were measured at baseline and at six bimonthly follow-up interviews among 1662 patients. Of these, 437 had the opportunity to complete three interviews before and after 9-11, with 291 (67%) completing all six. We performed graphic comparisons, paired t tests, classification based on standard errors of measurement (SEMs), and multiple linear regressions for patients who completed all six interviews.

RESULTS

No noticeable changes in aggregate trends for personal stress or mental health were associated with 9-11. However, 9-11 was associated with an aggregate decline in sense of control. This decline in sense of control was greater among those who were working for pay, had more comfortable incomes, and reported greater religiosity.

DISCUSSION

Older adults more closely resembling those who died during 9-11 and those with greater levels of religiosity were most likely to have their sense of control affected by this catastrophic event.