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Schaeffer MJ, Weerawardhena H, Becker S, Callahan BL. Capturing daily-life executive impairments in adults: Does the choice of neuropsychological tests matter? APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. ADULT 2022:1-11. [PMID: 35979845 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2022.2109970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Standardized executive functioning (EF) measures do not reliably capture EF-related difficulties reported in daily life. We aim to determine if an ecologically relevant neuropsychological battery is more strongly associated with self-reported everyday EF impairments than classically used tests. METHOD Fifty-nine adults aged 18-49 self-rated their EF abilities using the Barkley Deficits in EF Scale (BDEFS) and were randomly assigned to complete either a test battery composed of EF measures with hypothesized ecological relevance (Six Elements, Zoo Map, Hayling Sentence Completion, Iowa Gambling, and Auditory Startle Tasks) or one composed of traditional EF tasks (Card Sorting, Trail Making, Color-Word Interference, and Verbal Fluency). Associations were examined using linear regression. RESULTS There were no strong associations between BDEFS subscales and performance on either test battery. Only the regression model predicting Emotional Regulation from ecological tasks was significant. Iowa Gambling Task performance and corrugator muscle contraction in the Auditory Startle Task individually contributed significantly to the model, with small and moderate effect sizes respectively. CONCLUSION Results align with evidence that self-reported EF difficulties are not adequately captured by formal neuropsychological measures, even for performance-based measures which directly tap everyday constructs. Findings are interpreted cautiously in the context of a small, high-functioning sample.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Himanthri Weerawardhena
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Calgary, Canada
| | - Sara Becker
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Calgary, Canada
| | - Brandy L Callahan
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Calgary, Canada
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Taylor CL, Zaghi AE. The interplay of ADHD characteristics and executive functioning with the GPA and divergent thinking of engineering students: A conceptual replication and extension. Front Psychol 2022; 13:937153. [PMID: 35967649 PMCID: PMC9363761 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Characteristics of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and executive functioning difficulties have been found to correspond with poorer academic outcomes on the one hand and enhanced divergent thinking on the other hand. The current study was conducted to better understand the relationship between ADHD characteristics, executive functioning difficulties, divergent thinking, and academic outcomes by conceptually replicating and expanding on a previous study. Undergraduate engineering students (N = 199) at a public university in the northeastern United States completed self-report measures of ADHD characteristics and daily executive functioning, as well as divergent thinking (figural and verbal) and intelligence quotient (IQ) tests. The results of a series of multiple regression models showed that (1) executive functioning difficulties negatively, and non-verbal IQ and figural divergent thinking positively, predicted engineering grade point average (GPA; obtained from the university registrar’s office), (2) GPA and verbal IQ positively predicted figural divergent thinking scores, and (3) verbal IQ positively predicted verbal divergent thinking scores. A series of multiple regression models testing the assertion that controlling for IQ would strengthen the relationship between divergent thinking and ADHD characteristics or executive functioning were not supported but did show associations between select components of characteristics and divergent thinking. Taken together, these results support previous conclusions that students with ADHD characteristics and executive functioning difficulties may struggle academically yet exhibit select enhanced divergent thinking abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christa L. Taylor
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- *Correspondence: Christa L. Taylor,
| | - Arash Esmaili Zaghi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
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3
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Lace JW, McGrath A, Merz ZC. A factor analytic investigation of the Barkley deficits in executive functioning scale, short form. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-020-00756-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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4
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O'Brien AM, Kivisto LR, Deasley S, Casey JE. Executive Functioning Rating Scale as a Screening Tool for ADHD: Independent Validation of the BDEFS-CA. J Atten Disord 2021; 25:965-977. [PMID: 31448664 DOI: 10.1177/1087054719869834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Objective: This study provides independent examination of the validity of the Barkley Deficits of Executive Functioning Scale-Children and Adolescents (BDEFS-CA) in a sample of children diagnosed with ADHD (n = 50) and typically developing controls (n = 50). Method: Parents of participants completed the BDEFS-CA and the Conners 3 rating scales. Validity of BDEFS-CA was examined using a confirmatory factor analysis, correlational analyses with Conners 3 ratings, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis of diagnostic accuracy. Results: Findings support the construct, concurrent, and discriminant validity of the BDEFS-CA in a mixed sample. Conclusion: Findings provide independent examination of the validity of the BDEFS-CA as a measure of executive dysfunction and a screening tool for ADHD.
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Taylor CL, Zaghi AE. The Nuanced Relationship Between Creative Cognition and the Interaction Between Executive Functioning and Intelligence. JOURNAL OF CREATIVE BEHAVIOR 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/jocb.493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Mashhadi A, Maleki ZH, Hasani J, Rasoolzadeh Tabatabaei SK. Psychometric properties of Persian version of the Barkley deficits in executive functioning scale-children and adolescents. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. CHILD 2020; 10:369-376. [PMID: 32069127 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2020.1726352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale-Children and Adolescents (BDEFS-CA) is an empirically based tool for evaluating clinically significant dimensions of child and adolescent executive functioning. The present study examined the psychometric properties of Persian version of the BDEFS-CA Long Form parent-report in children and adolescents aged 6-18 years old (n = 2,295, 51% girls). The results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) consistently underscored a five-factor structure (self-management to time, self-organization/problem solving, self-restraint, self-motivation and self-regulation of emotion), resembling the original factor structure, in Persian language. Additionally, Results showed that Persian version of the BDEFS-CA Long Form demonstrated high internal consistency and test-retest reliabilities. Convergent validity with Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI) and divergent validity between normal and clinical groups were good. Overall, findings provide support for the validity and reliability Persian version of the BDEFS-CA Long Form, which can be used to assess executive dysfunction in daily life activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Mashhadi
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education Sciences and Psychology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | | | - Jafar Hasani
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
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7
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González RA, Vélez-Pastrana MC, Blankers M, Bäcker A, Konstenius M, Holtmann M, Levin FR, Noack M, Kaye S, Demetrovics Z, van de Glind G, van den Brink W, Schellekens A. Onset and Severity of Early Disruptive Behavioral Disorders in Treatment-Seeking Substance Use Disorder Patients with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Eur Addict Res 2020; 26:211-222. [PMID: 32594079 DOI: 10.1159/000508653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
AIMS This study addressed the age of onset of conduct disorder (CD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) in treatment-seeking substance use disorder (SUD) patients with and without adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and its association with early onset of SUD. METHODS We examined data from the 2nd International ADHD in Substance Use Disorders Prevalence Study, including 400 adults in SUD treatment from Puerto Rico, Hungary, and Australia. ADHD, SUD, and CD/ODD were assessed with the Conners Adult ADHD Diagnostic Interview for DSM-IV, the MINI International Neuropsychiatric Interview, and the K-SADS, respectively. Cox regression analyses modeled time to emergence of CD/ODD separately for SUD patients with and without adult ADHD. Linear regression models examined associations between age of onset of SUD and presence of ADHD and adjusted for sex, age, and country. To assess the mediating role of CD/ODD on the association of ADHD with onset of SUD, adjusted regression models were estimated. RESULTS Treatment-seeking SUD patients with ADHD presented an earlier onset of CD/ODD compared with those without ADHD. CD/ODD symptom loads were higher among the SUD and ADHD group. Age of first substance use and SUD were significantly earlier in SUD patients with ADHD, and these findings remained significant after adjustment for demographics and coexisting CD/ODD. CONCLUSIONS ADHD is associated with earlier onset of SUD as well as with an earlier onset of more frequent and more severe disruptive behavioral disorders. These findings may inform preventive interventions to mitigate adverse consequences of ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael A González
- National Adoption and Fostering Service & National Conduct Problems Team, Michael Rutter Centre, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom, .,Centre for Psychiatry, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom,
| | - María C Vélez-Pastrana
- PhD Program in Clinical Psychology, Universidad Carlos Albizu, San Juan, Puerto Rico, USA
| | - Matthijs Blankers
- Arkin Mental Health Care, Department of Research, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Trimbos institute, Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Amanda Bäcker
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maija Konstenius
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Martin Holtmann
- LWL-University Hospital for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Ruhr-University Bochum, Hamm, Germany
| | - Frances R Levin
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Moritz Noack
- LWL-University Hospital for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Ruhr-University Bochum, Hamm, Germany
| | - Sharlene Kaye
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Zsolt Demetrovics
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Geurt van de Glind
- Radboudumc, Donders Centre for Medical Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Nijmegen Institute for Scientist Practitioners in Addiction, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Wim van den Brink
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Arnt Schellekens
- Radboudumc, Donders Centre for Medical Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Nijmegen Institute for Scientist Practitioners in Addiction, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Kamradt JM, Nikolas MA, Burns GL, Garner AA, Jarrett MA, Luebbe AM, Becker SP. Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (BDEFS): Validation in a Large Multisite College Sample. Assessment 2019; 28:964-976. [PMID: 31431045 DOI: 10.1177/1073191119869823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Despite the importance of daily life executive functioning (EF) for college students' success, few measures exist that have been validated in college students specifically. This study examined the factor structure of the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (BDEFS) in college students. Participants were 1,311 students (ages 18-28 years, 65% female) from five universities in the United States. Additionally, the study examined invariance across sex, age, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms. Exploratory structural equation modeling provided strong support for the BDEFS five-factor structure though some items had high cross-loadings on multiple factors. Findings generally supported invariance across sex and age; however, loadings, thresholds, and factor means differed based on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms. Stronger support for invariance across sex emerged for a reduced item version that eliminated cross-loading items. Overall, findings provide support for the validity and utility of the BDEFS in college students.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Stephen P Becker
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA.,University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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BEERTEN-DUIJKERS JUDITHCLM, VISSERS CONSTANCETHWM, RINCK MIKE, BARKLEY RUSSELLA, EGGER JOSIM. Dutch translation and adaptation of the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (BDEFS). ARCH CLIN PSYCHIAT 2019. [DOI: 10.1590/0101-60830000000202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - MIKE RINCK
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | | | - JOS I. M. EGGER
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Netherlands; Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry, Netherlands; Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry, Netherlands; Stevig Specialized and Forensic Care for People with Intellectual Disabilities, Netherlands
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10
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González RA, Vélez-Pastrana MC, McCrory E, Kallis C, Aguila J, Canino G, Bird H. Evidence of concurrent and prospective associations between early maltreatment and ADHD through childhood and adolescence. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2019; 54:671-682. [PMID: 30903235 DOI: 10.1007/s00127-019-01659-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE An emerging body of work suggests a link between childhood maltreatment and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, research examining the role of maltreatment in the early course of the disorder lacks robust evidence from longitudinal studies. Our aim was to examine concurrent and prospective associations between maltreatment experiences and ADHD diagnosis and sex differences, and to estimate the association between repetitive maltreatment exposure and ADHD through childhood and adolescence. METHODS Data were obtained from the Boricua Youth Study, a longitudinal study of 2480 children and adolescents of Puerto Rican background. Neglect, physical, emotional and sexual abuse, and foster placement were regressed on ADHD diagnosis measured at each of three waves using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-IV. Multilevel regressions estimated the effects of exposure on ADHD, adjusted by age, sex, income, household education, parental psychopathology, comorbidity and ADHD medication status. RESULTS Emotional abuse and foster placement had robust associations with ADHD diagnosis. For girls, physical abuse had a threefold increase in the odds of having ADHD diagnosis; for boys, associations were observed only for emotional abuse. Prospective models examining the risk of ADHD following maltreatment provided initial evidence for the effects of physical abuse on ADHD, and a linear trend for repetitive exposure suggested increased probability for disorder persistence. CONCLUSIONS Associations between early maltreatment and ADHD were robust. Different categories of maltreatment increase the likelihood of ADHD for girls and boys. Increased exposure to maltreatment may predict symptom persistence. Interventions addressing ADHD must consider the effects of both sex and family environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael A González
- Centre for Mental Health, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, 7th floor Commonwealth Building, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK. .,Center for Evaluation and Sociomedical Research, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, USA.
| | - María C Vélez-Pastrana
- Center for Evaluation and Sociomedical Research, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, USA.,Ph.D. Program in Clinical Psychology, Carlos Albizu University, San Juan, PR, USA
| | - Eamon McCrory
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Jivelisse Aguila
- Ph.D. Program in Clinical Psychology, Carlos Albizu University, San Juan, PR, USA
| | - Glorisa Canino
- Behavioral Sciences Research Institute, University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, San Juan, PR, USA
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11
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Young S, González RA, Fridman M, Hodgkins P, Kim K, Gudjonsson GH. Health-related quality of life in prisoners with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and head injury. BMC Psychiatry 2018; 18:209. [PMID: 29929487 PMCID: PMC6013883 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-018-1785-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and head injury (including traumatic brain injury (TBI)) manifest in high levels across prison samples and guidance from the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence notes that people with acquired brain injury may have increased prevalence of ADHD. We aimed to examine the association of ADHD with TBI and the impact of the association upon health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and service use among imprisoned adults. METHODS An observational study was performed in 2011-2013, at Porterfield Prison, Inverness, United Kingdom (UK). The all male sample included 390 adult prison inmates with capacity to consent and no history of moderate or severe intellectual disability. Head injury was measured with a series of self-reported questions, addressing history of hits to the head: frequency, severity, loss of consciousness (LOC), and sequelae. Participants were interviewed using the Diagnostic Interview for ADHD in Adults 2.0. The Health Utilities Index Mark 3 was used to measure health status, and to calculate attribute specific HRQoL and Quality-Adjusted Life Year (QALY) scores. RESULTS 72% of prisoners sampled reported at least one head injury in their lifetime. Among those, 70% of head injuries occurred before age 16 and 70% experienced LOC. Prisoners with ADHD were nearly twice more likely to have TBI. Prisoners with ADHD-only and ADHD with co-morbid TBI had significantly lower scores in several HRQoL attributes, compared with TBI only or the absence of either condition. Adjusted logistic regression models indicated an average reduction of 0.20 QALYs in inmates with ADHD-only and 0.30 QALY loss in those with ADHD with co-morbid TBI compared with inmates with neither condition. CONCLUSIONS There is a robust association between ADHD and TBI, and ADHD with co-morbid TBI confers significantly greater impairment in terms of HRQoL. Managing the short and long-term consequences of TBI is essential to improving care for prisoners and to addressing the criminogenic factors related to them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Young
- Psychology Services Limited, PO Box 1735, Croydon, CR97AE, UK. .,Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Rafael A. González
- 0000 0004 0426 7183grid.450709.fEast London NHS Foundation Trust, East London, UK
| | | | - Paul Hodgkins
- 0000 0004 5913 664Xgrid.476678.cSage Therapeutics, Cambridge, MA USA
| | - Keira Kim
- Independent Medical Writer, San Diego, CA USA
| | - Gisli H. Gudjonsson
- 0000 0004 0643 5232grid.9580.4Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland ,0000 0001 2322 6764grid.13097.3cInstitute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
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Leontyev A, Sun S, Wolfe M, Yamauchi T. Augmented Go/No-Go Task: Mouse Cursor Motion Measures Improve ADHD Symptom Assessment in Healthy College Students. Front Psychol 2018; 9:496. [PMID: 29695985 PMCID: PMC5905239 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is frequently characterized as a disorder of executive function (EF). However, behavioral tests of EF, such as go/No-go tasks, often fail to grasp the deficiency in EF revealed by questionnaire-based measures. This inability is usually attributed to questionnaires and behavioral tasks assessing different constructs of EFs. We propose an additional explanation for this discrepancy. We hypothesize that this problem stems from the lack of dynamic assessment of decision-making (e.g., continuous monitoring of motor behavior such as velocity and acceleration in choice reaching) in classical versions of behavioral tasks. We test this hypothesis by introducing dynamic assessment in the form of mouse motion in a go/No-go task. Our results indicate that, among healthy college students, self-report measures of ADHD symptoms become strongly associated with performance in behavioral tasks when continuous assessment (e.g., acceleration in the mouse-cursor motion) is introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Takashi Yamauchi
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
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Román-Ithier JC, González RA, Vélez-Pastrana MC, González-Tejera GM, Albizu-García C. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms, type of offending and recidivism in a prison population: The role of substance dependence. CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR AND MENTAL HEALTH : CBMH 2017; 27:443-456. [PMID: 27455899 PMCID: PMC5269538 DOI: 10.1002/cbm.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Revised: 02/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is unclear whether adult offenders with a history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are more likely to re-offend, and if so, in any specific offences. AIM This study aimed to examine correlates of childhood ADHD symptoms among prisoners. METHODS A randomly selected sample of 1179 participants from the adult sentenced population of Puerto Rico (USA) reported their history of violent and non-violent offences, age of first arrest and re-offending. Participants completed retrospective measures of ADHD and a diagnostic interview for substance use disorders. RESULTS Self-reported ADHD was associated with age of first arrest, a number of violent and non-violent offences and re-offending. The association with any non-violent offending was explained statistically by substance use disorders and other psychosocial covariates. ADHD was independently associated with being under 15 years of age at first arrest and with re-offending. CONCLUSIONS Although some associations between ADHD and offending may be accounted for by co-morbidity with substance use disorders, early onset of offending and repeated violent offending appear to be directly related to ADHD. Criminal justice policies should, therefore, incorporate ADHD screening accompanied by appropriate rehabilitation programmes when such neurodevelopmental disorder is identified. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rafael A. González
- Centre for Mental Health, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, UK
- Center for Evaluation and Sociomedical Research, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Puerto Rico
| | - María C. Vélez-Pastrana
- Center for Evaluation and Sociomedical Research, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Puerto Rico
- Clinical Psychology PhD Program, Carlos Albizu University, San Juan, PR
| | | | - Carmen Albizu-García
- Center for Evaluation and Sociomedical Research, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Puerto Rico
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