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Cooper LM, Shah D. Emotional false memories: the impact of response bias under speeded retrieval conditions. Cogn Emot 2024:1-8. [PMID: 39267293 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2401611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 09/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/17/2024]
Abstract
Emotional false memory findings using the DRM paradigm have been marked by higher false alarms to negatively arousing compared to neutral critical lure items. Explanations for these findings have mainly focused on false memory-based accounts. However, here we address the question of whether a response bias for emotional stimuli can, at least in part, explain this phenomenon. Participants viewed both neutral and negative arousing DRM lists and completed a recognition test in speeded or self-paced conditions. Speeded test reduces the opportunity to adjust response bias. Analysis showed no significant difference in false recognition across critical lure types for the speeded condition, but false recognition was higher for negative compared to neutral critical lures in the self-paced condition. We argue that when retrieval does not allow for shifts in response criteria, false alarms to negative emotional critical lures appear more similar to neutral equivalents. The discussion explores memory-based and criterion-shift explanations for the enhanced emotional false memory finding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Cooper
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Datin Shah
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
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2
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Cooper LM, Shah D, Moucharik I, Munshi Z. Investigating a bias account of emotional false memories using a criterion warning and force choice restrictions at retrieval. Cogn Emot 2024:1-16. [PMID: 39069646 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2379824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Here, we add to the debate as to whether false recognition of emotional stimuli is more memory-based or more bias-based. Emotional false memory findings using the DRM paradigm have been marked by higher false alarms to negatively arousing compared to neutral critical lure items. Explanation for these findings has mainly focused on false memory-based accounts. However, here we address the question of whether a response bias for emotional stimuli can, at least in part, explain this phenomenon. In Experiment 1, we used a criterion warning, previously shown to increase more conservative responding and reduce false recognition. Experiment 2, we employed a two-alternative-forced choice test, which minimises the role of criterion setting. In both experiments, we compared false alarms to negative and neutral critical lures. We observed a significant decrease in false recognition rates for both negative and neutral critical lures under the conditions of forced choice restriction and criterion warning. However, despite these conditions, negative items, compared to their neutral counterparts, still consistently provoked a higher degree of false recognition. The discussion that follows presents an exploration of both memory-based accounts and criterion-setting explanations for the enhanced emotional false memory finding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Cooper
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Datin Shah
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Imane Moucharik
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Zainab Munshi
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
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3
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Otgaar H, Mangiulli I, Battista F, Howe ML. External and internal influences yield similar memory effects: the role of deception and suggestion. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1081528. [PMID: 37701866 PMCID: PMC10494980 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1081528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
In legal cases, testimonies can become contaminated because of an amalgam of external and internal influences on memory. It is well-established that external influences (e.g., suggestive interviews) can hurt memory. However, less focus has been placed on the impact of internal influences (e.g., lying) on memory. In the current review, we show that the available evidence suggests that both external and internal influences exert similar effects on memory. That is, we review studies showing that suggesting non-occurrences and suggesting non-experiences can lead to omission errors and false memories, respectively. Likewise, these memory effects are also observed when focusing on internal influences. That is, false denials, feigning amnesia and fabrication have been shown to affect memory in terms of forgetting (i.e., omissions) and false memories (i.e., commissions). Also, we show that both external and internal influences can lead to changes in the belief that an event occurred. We argue that in legal cases, triers of fact should concentrate on whether both types of influences might have affected testimonial accuracy in witnesses, victims, and suspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Leuven Institute of Criminology (LINC), Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Ivan Mangiulli
- Leuven Institute of Criminology (LINC), Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Education, Psychology, and Communication Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Fabiana Battista
- Department of Education, Psychology, and Communication Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Mark L. Howe
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, United Kingdom
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4
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Knott L, Wilkinson S, Hellenthal M, Shah D, Howe ML. Generative processing and emotional false memories: a generation "cost" for negative false memory formation but only after delay. Cogn Emot 2022; 36:1448-1457. [PMID: 36196863 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2022.2128063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Previous research shows that manipulations (e.g. levels-of-processing) that facilitate true memory often increase susceptibility to false memory. An exception is the generation effect. Using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, Soraci et al. found that generating rather than reading list items led to an increase in true but not false memories. They argued that generation led to enhanced item-distinctiveness that drove down false memory production. In the current study, we investigated the effects of generative processing on valenced stimuli and after a delayed retention interval to examine factors that may lead to a generation effect that increases false memories. At the immediate test, false recognition rates for both negative and neutral valanced critical lures were similar across read and generate conditions. However, after a one-week delay, we saw a valence differentiation, with a generation effect for false recognition but only for negative stimuli. The roles of item-specific and relational processing during encoding and their interaction with long-term retention are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Knott
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | | | - Maria Hellenthal
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Datin Shah
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Mark L Howe
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
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5
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False (or biased) memory: Emotion and working memory capacity effects in the DRM paradigm. Mem Cognit 2022; 50:1443-1463. [DOI: 10.3758/s13421-022-01298-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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6
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Moore KN, Lampinen JM, Nesmith BL, Bridges AJ, Gallo DA. The effect of feedback and recollection rejection instructions on the development of memory monitoring and accuracy. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 221:105434. [PMID: 35489136 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Recollection rejection (a form of memory monitoring) involves rejecting false details on the basis of remembering true details (recall to reject), thereby increasing memory accuracy. This study examined how recollection rejection instructions and feedback affect memory accuracy and false recognition in 5-year-olds, 6- and 7-year-olds, 8- and 9-year-olds, and adults. Participants (N = 336) completed three study-test phases. Instructions and item-level feedback were manipulated during the first two phases, with the third phase including a test containing no instructions or feedback to evaluate learning effects. As predicted, in the younger children, as compared with the older children and adults, we found reduced accuracy scores (hits to studied items minus false alarms to related lures), reduced recollection rejection to related lures, and increased false recognition scores. We also found that, in the third phase, prior feedback reduced false recognition scores, potentially by improving monitoring, and typical developmental differences in false recognition were eliminated. However, there were mixed findings of instructions and feedback, and in some conditions these interventions harmed memory. These findings provide initial evidence that combining instructions and feedback with repeated task practice may improve monitoring effectiveness, but additional work is needed on how these factors improve and sometimes harm performance in young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara N Moore
- Department of Psychology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74074, USA.
| | | | - Blake L Nesmith
- Department of Psychology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74074, USA
| | - Ana J Bridges
- Department of Psychology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - David A Gallo
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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7
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Kloft L, Otgaar H, Blokland A, Toennes SW, Ramaekers JG. Remembering Molly: Immediate and delayed false memory formation after acute MDMA exposure. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2022; 57:59-68. [PMID: 35124400 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2022.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The entactogen 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is increasingly being recognized for its therapeutic potential but is also widespread in nightlife settings where it may co-occur with crime. Since previous research detected impaired verbal memory during acute MDMA intoxication, understanding the drug's ramifications in an applied legal context becomes crucial. We conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to examine acute and delayed effects of MDMA (75 mg) on false memory in 60 healthy volunteers with a history of MDMA use, using three well-established false memory methods: a basic, associative word list (Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM)) paradigm and two applied misinformation tasks using a virtual reality crime. Memory was tested immediately (encoding and retrieval under drug influence) and 1 week later (retrieval when sober). Small MDMA-induced impairments of true memory in the word list task were detected at both time points. MDMA increased false memory for related but non-critical lures during the immediate test, and decreased false memory for critical lures after a delay. Episodic memory assessed in the misinformation tasks was not consistently affected. Findings indicate a complex memory profile but no heightened vulnerability to external suggestion in response to MDMA intoxication. Recommendations for future applied legal psychological research include adding measures of recall on top of recognition, using study designs that separate the different memory phases, and potentially testing higher doses. Further research on false memories and suggestibility using imagination procedures can also be relevant for the clinical context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian Kloft
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, the Netherlands.
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, the Netherlands; Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium
| | - Arjan Blokland
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Stefan W Toennes
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Legal Medicine, Goethe University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
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Wang J, Otgaar H, Howe ML, Dong Q, Zhou C. Self-enhanced False Memory across the Life Span. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2022; 77:1645-1653. [PMID: 35099009 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbac020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The role of self in veridical memory has been extensively studied, but what is the role of self in false memory development across the life span? The current study examined the impact of self-reference on associative false memory in children, younger adults, and older adults, and further investigated possible mechanisms concerning how self-reference might impact false memory in different age groups. METHOD Combining a self-reference manipulation with the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, children, younger adults and older adults encoded DRM word lists as paired with their own name, another person's name, or a red square. Later their true and false recognition memory as well as recollection and familiarity were measured. RESULTS A self-enhanced false memory effect was found in all age groups. That is, participants generated more false memories in the self-reference condition relative to the other-reference and neutral conditions. Furthermore, when examining its underlying memory mechanisms, we found that self-reference mainly increased false recollection in younger adults but facilitated familiarity of critical lures in older adults. DISCUSSION Although self-reference increases false memory in both younger and older adults, the underlying mechanisms are different in that older adults have more self-relevant false familiarity while younger adults generate more self-relevant phantom recollection. The current study also has implications for eyewitness reports, suggesting that the self-relevance of memory may be one relevant factor to consider when evaluating potential risk factors of false memory.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Henry Otgaar
- KU Leuven, Belgium.,Maastricht University, the Netherlands
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Malloggi S, Conte F, De Rosa O, Righi S, Gronchi G, Ficca G, Giganti F. False memories formation is increased in individuals with insomnia. J Sleep Res 2021; 31:e13527. [PMID: 34854152 PMCID: PMC9285031 DOI: 10.1111/jsr.13527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies suggest that sleep can influence false memories formation. Specifically, acute sleep loss has been shown to promote false memories production by impairing memory retrieval at subsequent testing. Surprisingly, the relationship between sleep and false memories has only been investigated in healthy subjects but not in individuals with insomnia, whose sleep is objectively impaired compared to healthy subjects. Indeed, this population shows several cognitive impairments involving prefrontal functioning that could affect source monitoring processes and contribute to false memories generation. Moreover, it has been previously reported that subjects with insomnia differentially process sleep‐related versus neutral stimuli. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare false memories production between individuals with insomnia symptoms and good sleepers, and to evaluate the possible influence of stimulus category (neutral versus sleep‐related) in the two groups. The results show that false memories are globally increased in participants reporting insomnia symptoms compared to good sleepers. A reduction in source monitoring ability was also observed in the former group, suggesting that an impairment of this executive function could be especially involved in false memories formation. Moreover, our data seem to confirm that false memories production in individuals with insomnia symptoms appears significantly modulated by stimulus category.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Malloggi
- Department of NEUROFARBA, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Francesca Conte
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania L. Vanvitelli, Caserta, Italy
| | - Oreste De Rosa
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania L. Vanvitelli, Caserta, Italy
| | - Stefania Righi
- Department of NEUROFARBA, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gronchi
- Department of NEUROFARBA, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Gianluca Ficca
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania L. Vanvitelli, Caserta, Italy
| | - Fiorenza Giganti
- Department of NEUROFARBA, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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10
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Bialystok E. Bilingualism as a Slice of Swiss Cheese. Front Psychol 2021; 12:769323. [PMID: 34819899 PMCID: PMC8606518 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Bialystok
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
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11
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McGuire KL. Methods of Exploring Related-Meaning-Based False Memories. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2021.1976782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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12
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Schopen K, Otgaar H, Howe ML, Muris P. Effects of forewarnings on children’s and adults’ spontaneous false memories. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2021.1904877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Schopen
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section of Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section of Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
- Leuvens Institute of Criminology, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven
| | - Mark L Howe
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section of Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London
| | - Peter Muris
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section of Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
- Psychology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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13
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14
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Pavlova M, Orr SL, Noel M. Parent-Child Reminiscing about Past Pain as a Preparatory Technique in the Context of Children's Pain: A Narrative Review and Call for Future Research. CHILDREN-BASEL 2020; 7:children7090130. [PMID: 32906595 PMCID: PMC7552681 DOI: 10.3390/children7090130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pain permeates childhood and remains inadequately and/or inconsistently managed. Existing research and clinical practice guidelines have largely focused on factors influencing the immediate experience of pain. The need for and benefits of preparing children for future pain (e.g., painful procedures) has been well established. Despite being a robust predictor of future pain and distress, memories of past painful experiences remain overlooked in pediatric pain management. Just as autobiographical memories prepare us for the future, children’s memories for past pain can be harnessed to prepare children for future painful experiences. Children’s pain memories are malleable and can be reframed to be less distressing, thus reducing anticipatory distress and promoting self-efficacy. Parents are powerful agents of change in the context of pediatric pain and valuable historians of children’s past painful experiences. They can alter children’s pain memories to be less distressing simply by talking, or reminiscing, about past pain. This narrative review summarizes existing research on parent–child reminiscing in the context of acute and chronic pediatric pain and argues for incorporation of parent–child reminiscing elements into preparatory interventions for painful procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pavlova
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada;
| | - Serena L. Orr
- Department of Pediatrics, Alberta Children’s Hospital, Calgary, AB T3B 6A8, Canada;
- Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Melanie Noel
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada;
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Owerko Centre, Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Calgary, AB T3B 6A8, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-403-220-4969
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15
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Gorman G, Flescher AM. Seeking justice rooted in truth, reconciliation and forgiveness. Med Confl Surviv 2020; 36:249-267. [PMID: 32664801 DOI: 10.1080/13623699.2020.1793480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents an overview of the philosophy and implementation of restorative justice practices, the challenges and accomplishments of which we examine across the arc of the twentieth and emerging twenty-first century. Restorative justice, we argue, is both counterintuitive and pragmatic in its application. We examine truth and reconciliation hearings, intentional peace communities, and other paragons of the restorative justice model from a macroscopic perspective. A case study offers a microscopic lens to the conflict-ridden communities in Chicago, IL, ground zero for the epidemic of handgun violence in the U. S. We conclude with a discussion of what pragmatic hope restorative justice practices might offer to embattled landscapes which stretch from foreign lands to our own communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geraldine Gorman
- College of Nursing, University of Illinois Chicago , Chicago, USA
| | - Andrew M Flescher
- Core Faculty, Program in Public Health, State University of New York , Stony Brook, NY, USA
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16
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Kloft L, Otgaar H, Blokland A, Monds LA, Toennes SW, Loftus EF, Ramaekers JG. Cannabis increases susceptibility to false memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:4585-4589. [PMID: 32041881 PMCID: PMC7060677 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1920162117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
With the growing global acceptance of cannabis and its widespread use by eyewitnesses and suspects in legal cases, understanding the popular drug's ramifications for memory is a pressing need. In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, we examined the acute and delayed effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) intoxication on susceptibility to false memory in 64 healthy volunteers. Memory was tested immediately (encoding and retrieval under drug influence) and 1 wk later (retrieval sober). We used three different methods (associative word lists and two misinformation tasks using virtual reality). Across all methods, we found evidence for enhanced false-memory effects in intoxicated participants. Specifically, intoxicated participants showed higher false recognition in the associative word-list task both at immediate and delayed test than controls. This yes bias became increasingly strong with decreasing levels of association between studied and test items. In a misinformation task, intoxicated participants were more susceptible to false-memory creation using a virtual-reality eyewitness scenario and virtual-reality perpetrator scenario. False-memory effects were mostly restricted to the acute-intoxication phase. Cannabis seems to increase false-memory proneness, with decreasing strength of association between an event and a test item, as assessed by different false-memory paradigms. Our findings have implications for how and when the police should interview suspects and eyewitnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian Kloft
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands;
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Arjan Blokland
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Lauren A Monds
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
- The Langton Centre, South Eastern Sydney Local Health District, NSW Health, Taren Point, NSW 2229, Australia
| | - Stefan W Toennes
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Legal Medicine, Goethe University of Frankfurt, 60323 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Elizabeth F Loftus
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands;
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17
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Developmental trends in lineup performance: Adolescents are more prone to innocent bystander misidentifications than children and adults. Mem Cognit 2019; 47:428-440. [PMID: 30478519 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-018-0877-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We tested developmental trends in eyewitness identification in biased and unbiased lineups. Our main interest was adolescent's lineup performance compared with children and adults. 7-10-year-olds, 11-13-year-olds, 14-16-year-olds, and adults (N = 431) watched a wallet-theft-video and subsequently identified the thief, victim, and witness from simultaneous target-present and target-absent six-person photo lineups. The thief-absent lineup included a bystander previously seen in thief proximity. Research on unconscious transference suggested a selection bias toward the bystander in adults and 11-13-year-olds, but not in younger children. Confirming our hypothesis, adolescents were more prone to bystander bias than all other age groups. This may be due to adolescents making more inferential errors than children, as predicted by fuzzy-trace theory and associative-activation theory, combined with lower inhibition control in adolescents compared with adults. We also replicated a clothing bias for all age groups and age-related performance differences in our unbiased lineups. Consistent with previous findings, participants were generally overconfident in their decisions, even though confidence was a better predictor of accuracy in older compared with younger participants. With this study, we show that adolescents have an increased tendency to misidentify an innocent bystander. Continued efforts are needed to disentangle how adolescents in comparison to other age groups perform in forensically relevant situations.
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Abstract
It is well established that processing information in relation to oneself (i.e., self-referencing) leads to better memory for that information than processing that same information in relation to others (i.e., other-referencing). However, it is unknown whether self-referencing also leads to more false memories than other-referencing does. In the current two experiments with European and East Asian samples, we presented participants the Deese-Roediger-McDermott lists together with their own name or other people's name (i.e., "Trump" in Experiment 1 and "Li Ming" in Experiment 2). We found consistent results across the two experiments; that is, in the self-reference condition, participants had higher true and false memory rates compared with those in the other-reference condition. Moreover, we found that self-referencing did not exhibit superior mnemonic advantage in terms of net accuracy compared with other-referencing and neutral conditions. These findings are discussed in terms of theoretical frameworks such as spreading activation theories and the fuzzy-trace theory. We propose that our results reflect the adaptive nature of memory in the sense that cognitive processes that increase mnemonic efficiency may also increase susceptibility to associative false memories.
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19
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Otgaar H, La Rooy D, Horselenberg R, Hershkowitz I, Ruiter C, Blezer L, Kidane R, Kollau R. Assessing the quality of child investigative interviewing in the Netherlands. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and NeuroscienceMaastricht University, Leuvens Institute of Criminology, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven Maastricht The Netherlands
- Faculty of PsychologyUniversitas Indonesia Depok Indonesia
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of London London UK
| | | | - Robert Horselenberg
- Faculty of Psychology and NeuroscienceMaastricht University, Leuvens Institute of Criminology, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven Maastricht The Netherlands
| | | | - Corine Ruiter
- Faculty of Psychology and NeuroscienceMaastricht University, Leuvens Institute of Criminology, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Laura Blezer
- Faculty of Psychology and NeuroscienceMaastricht University, Leuvens Institute of Criminology, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Rosie Kidane
- Faculty of Psychology and NeuroscienceMaastricht University, Leuvens Institute of Criminology, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Rowan Kollau
- Faculty of Psychology and NeuroscienceMaastricht University, Leuvens Institute of Criminology, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven Maastricht The Netherlands
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20
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Kloft L, Otgaar H, Blokland A, Garbaciak A, Monds LA, Ramaekers JG. False memory formation in cannabis users: a field study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:3439-3450. [PMID: 31250074 PMCID: PMC6892757 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05309-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Cannabis use is widespread and has previously been associated with memory impairments. However, the role of cannabis in relation to false memory production, i.e., memories of events that were not experienced, is less well-understood. OBJECTIVE The aim of the current field study was to examine the impact of cannabis use on false memory production. METHODS The Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm was used to induce false memories. In this paradigm, participants study word lists that are associatively related to a non-presented word, termed the critical lure. In a later memory test, true recognition rates and false alarm rates toward critical lures and unrelated items are assessed. Memory performance was compared between three groups: regular cannabis consumers who were acutely intoxicated (n = 53), regular cannabis consumers who were sober (n = 50), and cannabis-naïve controls (n = 53). The participants were approached in Dutch coffee shops (cannabis outlets) and cafes and asked to participate in our study. After collecting general information on their cannabis use, they were subjected to the DRM procedure. RESULTS Although false memory rates for critical lures did not statistically differ between groups, both intoxicated and sober cannabis consumers falsely recognized more unrelated items than control participants. Also, individuals without a history of cannabis use demonstrated higher memory accuracy compared with the intoxicated group. CONCLUSION It is concluded that cannabis intoxication and history of cannabis use induce a liberal response criterion for newly presented words for which the level of association with previously learned words is low and uncertainty is high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian Kloft
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands ,Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Arjan Blokland
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Alicja Garbaciak
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Lauren A. Monds
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Johannes G. Ramaekers
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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21
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Abstract
Previous research has shown that, in comparison to neutral stimuli, false memories for high arousing negative stimuli are greater after very fast presentation and limited attention at study. However, full compared to limited attention conditions still produce comparably more false memories for all stimuli types. Research has also shown that emotional stimuli benefit from a period of consolidation. What effect would such consolidation have on false memory formation even when attention is limited at study? The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of fast presentation on false memory production for negatively-arousing and neutral items over time using the DRM paradigm. Sixty-eight participants studied Negative and neutral DRM lists with fast or slow presentation conditions. Half completed a recognition test immediately and half completed a recognition test after one-week. Results revealed that, for fast presentation, negative critical lures increased after one week and were comparable to negative critical lures in the slow presentation encoding conditions. Neutral critical lures in the fast presentation condition did not change and remained lower compared to the slow presentation condition. These findings are the first demonstration that arousing negative false memories can increase over time when attention at encoding is limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Knott
- a Department of Psychology, City University of London , London , UK
| | - Datin Shah
- a Department of Psychology, City University of London , London , UK
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22
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Knott LM, Howe ML, Toffalini E, Shah D, Humphreys L. The role of attention in immediate emotional false memory enhancement. Emotion 2018; 18:1063-1077. [PMID: 29927261 PMCID: PMC6277129 DOI: 10.1037/emo0000407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments examined the effect of reduced attentional resources on false memory production for emotionally valenced stimuli using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. Prior research has demonstrated that emotional information is often better remembered than neutral information and that enhanced memory for emotional information is dependent on either automatic or controlled neural processing (Kensinger & Corkin, 2004). Behavioral studies designed to reduce attention resources at encoding have supported neuroimaging findings that indicate high arousal negative stimuli rely more on automatic processing but positive high arousal stimuli rely more on controlled processing. No study has yet examined the attentional resources required to produce emotionally valenced false memories. In Experiment 1, negative, positive, and neutral DRM lists were studied under full or divided attention (DA) conditions, and in Experiment 2, negative and neutral DRM lists were studied under fast (20 ms) or slow (2,000 ms) presentation conditions. Under DA and speeded presentation conditions, higher false memory recognition rates were found for negative compared with positive (Experiment 1) and neutral (Experiments 1 and 2) critical lures. This is the first demonstration of which we are aware that suggests negative false memories are associated with automatic neural processing, whereas positive and nonvalenced neutral false memories are associated with more controlled processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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23
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Otgaar H, Howe ML, Merckelbach H, Muris P. Who Is the Better Eyewitness? Sometimes Adults but at Other Times Children. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2018; 27:378-385. [PMID: 30369724 PMCID: PMC6187487 DOI: 10.1177/0963721418770998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Suggestibility is regarded as a major issue when children testify in court. Many legal professionals and memory researchers view children as inferior witnesses. Although differences in suggestibility exist between children and adults, they are much more complex than is usually assumed. We show that under certain conditions, adults are more susceptible than children to suggestion and false memories. We provide evidence that age-related shifts in suggestibility and false memory appear contingent on how quickly and automatically children and adults make associations when experiencing events. Specifically, when confronted with suggestive information about a related but nonexperienced detail, adults more frequently automatically generate links between items experienced and those already in memory, making them more susceptible to suggestion than children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University.,Department of Psychology, City, University of London
| | - Mark L Howe
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University.,Department of Psychology, City, University of London
| | | | - Peter Muris
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University
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24
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Brainerd CJ, Reyna VF, Holliday RE. Developmental reversals in false memory: Development is complementary, not compensatory. Dev Psychol 2018; 54:1773-1784. [PMID: 30070546 PMCID: PMC6110964 DOI: 10.1037/dev0000554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We report the 1st example of a true complementarity effect in memory development-a situation in which memory for the same event simultaneously becomes more and less accurate between early childhood and adulthood. We investigated this paradoxical effect because fuzzy-trace theory predicts that it can occur in paradigms that produce developmental reversals in false memory, which are circumstances in which adults are more likely than children to remember new events as old. The complementarity prediction is this: If subjects separately judge whether those same events are new but similar to old ones, adults will be more accurate than children, even though adults are less accurate when they judge whether the items are old. We report 4 experiments in which children (6- and 10-year-olds), adolescents (14-year-olds), and adults encoded the modal developmental reversal materials: Deese-Roediger-McDermott lists. Then, they responded to memory tests on which half the subjects judged whether test items were old and half judged whether the same items were new-similar. The paradoxical complementarity effect was detected in all experiments: The tendency to falsely remember new-similar items as being old increased with development, but so did the tendency to correctly remember them as being new-similar. (PsycINFO Database Record
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25
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Houben STL, Otgaar H, Roelofs J, Merckelbach H. Lateral Eye Movements Increase False Memory Rates. Clin Psychol Sci 2018; 6:610-616. [PMID: 30101041 PMCID: PMC6056909 DOI: 10.1177/2167702618757658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is a popular treatment for
posttraumatic stress disorder. However, little is known about the memory effects
of EMDR. Using a misinformation paradigm, we examined whether lateral eye
movements, as used in EMDR, enhance susceptibility to false memories.
Undergraduates (N = 82) saw a video depicting a car crash.
Subsequently, participants either performed eye movements or held their eyes
stationary. Afterward, all participants received misinformation in the form of
an eyewitness narrative. The results indicate that eye movement participants
were less accurate and were more susceptible to the misinformation effect than
controls. Our finding suggests EMDR may have risky drawbacks in an eyewitness
context and therefore urgently needs follow-up research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanne T L Houben
- Section on Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University.,Section on Clinical Psychology, Maastricht University
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Section on Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
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26
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Otgaar H, Muris P, Howe ML, Merckelbach H. What Drives False Memories in Psychopathology? A Case for Associative Activation. Clin Psychol Sci 2017; 5:1048-1069. [PMID: 29170722 PMCID: PMC5665161 DOI: 10.1177/2167702617724424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In clinical and court settings, it is imperative to know whether posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression may make people susceptible to false memories. We conducted a review of the literature on false memory effects in participants with PTSD, a history of trauma, or depression. When emotional associative material was presented to these groups, their levels of false memory were raised relative to those in relevant comparison groups. This difference did not consistently emerge when neutral or nonassociative material was presented. Our conclusion is supported by a quantitative comparison of effect sizes between studies using emotional associative or neutral, nonassociative material. Our review suggests that individuals with PTSD, a history of trauma, or depression are at risk for producing false memories when they are exposed to information that is related to their knowledge base.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter Muris
- Maastricht University
- Stellenbosch University
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27
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Shah D, Knott LM. The role of attention at retrieval on the false recognition of negative emotional DRM lists. Memory 2017; 26:269-276. [DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2017.1349803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Datin Shah
- Department of Psychology, City University of London, London, UK
| | - Lauren M. Knott
- Department of Psychology, City University of London, London, UK
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28
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Section Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Alysha Baker
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, Canada
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29
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30
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Otgaar H, Howe ML, Muris P. Maltreatment increases spontaneous false memories but decreases suggestion-induced false memories in children. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 35:376-391. [PMID: 28093783 PMCID: PMC5573940 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
We examined the creation of spontaneous and suggestion‐induced false memories in maltreated and non‐maltreated children. Maltreated and non‐maltreated children were involved in a Deese–Roediger–McDermott false memory paradigm where they studied and remembered negative and neutral word lists. Suggestion‐induced false memories were created using a misinformation procedure during which both maltreated and non‐maltreated children viewed a negative video (i.e., bank robbery) and later received suggestive misinformation concerning the event. Our results showed that maltreated children had higher levels of spontaneous negative false memories but lower levels of suggestion‐induced false memories as compared to non‐maltreated children. Collectively, our study demonstrates that maltreatment both increases and decreases susceptibility to memory illusions depending on the type of false memory being induced. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Trauma affects memory. It is unclear how trauma affects false memory.
What does this study add? This study focuses on two types of false memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Maastricht University, The Netherlands.,City, University of London, UK
| | - Mark L Howe
- Maastricht University, The Netherlands.,City, University of London, UK
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31
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Otgaar H, de Ruiter C, Howe ML, Hoetmer L, van Reekum P. A Case Concerning Children's False Memories of Abuse: Recommendations Regarding Expert Witness Work. PSYCHIATRY, PSYCHOLOGY, AND LAW : AN INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF THE AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHIATRY, PSYCHOLOGY AND LAW 2016; 24:365-378. [PMID: 31983961 PMCID: PMC6818307 DOI: 10.1080/13218719.2016.1230924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Expert witnesses can play a major role in legal cases concerning the reliability of statements. Abuse cases frequently contain only the memories of eyewitnesses/victims without the presence of physical evidence. Here, it is of the utmost importance that expert witnesses use scientific evidence for their expert opinion. In this case report, a case is described in which 20 children reported being sexually abused by the same teachers at their elementary school. The investigative steps that were taken by the police and school authorities are reviewed, including how they probably affected memory. In order to provide a sound expert opinion regarding the reliability of these statements, three recommendations are proposed. To reduce the effect of confirmation bias and increase objectivity, it is argued that expert witnesses' reports should contain alternative scenarios, be checked by another expert, and focus on the origin and context of the first statement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
- City University of London, UK
| | - Corine de Ruiter
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Mark L. Howe
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
- City University of London, UK
| | - Lisanne Hoetmer
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Patricia van Reekum
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
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32
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Brackmann N, Otgaar H, Sauerland M, Howe ML. The Impact of Testing on the Formation of Children's and Adults' False Memories. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 30:785-794. [PMID: 27917021 PMCID: PMC5129519 DOI: 10.1002/acp.3254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Witnesses are frequently questioned immediately following a crime. The effects of such testing on false recall are inconclusive: Testing may inoculate against subsequent misinformation or enhance false memory formation. We examined whether different types of processing can account for these discrepancies. Drawing from Fuzzy-trace and Associative-activation theories, immediate questions that trigger the processing of the global understanding of the event can heighten false memory rates. However, questions that trigger the processing of specific details can inoculate memories against subsequent misinformation. These effects were hypothesized to be more pronounced in children than in adults. Seven/eight-, 11/12-, 14/15-year-olds, and adults (N = 220) saw a mock-theft film and were tested immediately with meaning or item-specific questions. Test results on the succeeding day replicated classic misinformation and testing effects, although our processing hypothesis was not supported. Only adults who received meaning questions benefited from immediate testing and, across all ages, testing led to retrieval-enhanced suggestibility. © 2016 The Authors. Applied Cognitive Psychology Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Brackmann
- Section Forensic Psychology, Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and NeuroscienceMaastricht Universitythe Netherlands
- Department of PsychologyGothenburg UniversitySweden
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Section Forensic Psychology, Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and NeuroscienceMaastricht Universitythe Netherlands
| | - Melanie Sauerland
- Section Forensic Psychology, Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and NeuroscienceMaastricht Universitythe Netherlands
| | - Mark L. Howe
- Section Forensic Psychology, Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and NeuroscienceMaastricht Universitythe Netherlands
- Department of PsychologyCity University LondonUK
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