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Contemori G, Saccani MS, Bonato M. Cognitive-Cognitive Dual-task in aging: A cross-sectional online study. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0302152. [PMID: 38848421 PMCID: PMC11161073 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0302152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of neurodegenerative disorders, particularly dementia, is on the rise across many countries worldwide. This negative trend calls for improving our understanding of cognitive aging. While motor-cognitive dual-task approaches have already been proven valuable for clinical diagnosis, comparatively less research is available on the application of Cognitive-Cognitive Dual-Tasking (CCDT), across several cognitive domains. Moreover, there is limited understanding about how healthy aging affects performance in such dual-tasks in the general population. CCDT entails engaging individuals in multiple cognitive tasks simultaneously and holds promise for remote e-Health interventions. In this cross-sectional study, our objective was to evaluate the suitability of a newly developed, self-administered, online tool for examining age-related differences in memory performance under dual-tasking. 337 healthy adults aged 50-90 underwent a visual memory test (Memo) under both single and dual-task conditions (attend to auditory letters). Additional measures included questionnaires on subjective memory complaints (MAC-Q), on cognitive reserve (CR), and a cognitive screening (auto-GEMS). As expected, the accuracy of visual memory performance exhibited a negative correlation with age and MAC-Q, and a positive correlation with CR and auto-GEMS scores. Dual-tasking significantly impaired performance, and its detrimental effect decreased with increasing age. Furthermore, the protective effect of cognitive reserve diminished with advancing age. These findings suggest that the commonly observed age-related increase in dual-task costs is not universally applicable across all tasks and cognitive domains. With further refinement, a longitudinal implementation of this approach may assist in identifying individuals with a distinct cognitive trajectory and potentially at a higher risk of developing cognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulio Contemori
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Maria Silvia Saccani
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, Padova, Italy
| | - Mario Bonato
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, Padova, Italy
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2
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Pougeon J, Camos V, Belletier C, Barrouillet P. Quantifying resource sharing in working memory. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02494-4. [PMID: 38519759 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02494-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Several models of working memory (WM), the cognitive system devoted to the temporary maintenance of a small amount of information in view of its treatment, assume that these two functions of storage and processing share a common and limited resource. However, the predictions issued from these models concerning this resource-sharing remain usually qualitative, and at which precise extent these functions are affected by their concurrent implementation remains undecided. The aim of the present study was to quantify this resource sharing by expressing storage and processing performance during a complex span task in terms of the proportion of the highest level of performance each participant was able to reach (i.e., their span) in each component when performed in isolation. Two experiments demonstrated that, despite substantial dual-task decrements, participants managed to preserve half or more of their best performance in both components, testifying for a remarkable robustness of the human cognitive system. The implications of these results for the main WM models are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Pougeon
- Département de Psychologie, Université de Fribourg, Rue P.-A. de Faucigny 2, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland.
- Université Clermont-Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | - Valérie Camos
- Département de Psychologie, Université de Fribourg, Rue P.-A. de Faucigny 2, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | | | - Pierre Barrouillet
- Faculté de Psychologie et des Sciences de l'Éducation, Université de Genève, 40 Boulevard du Pont d'Arve, 1200, Genève 4, Switzerland.
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3
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Guo X, Dobkins K. Private speech improves cognitive performance in young adults. Conscious Cogn 2023; 116:103585. [PMID: 37944294 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2023.103585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
The current study investigated the relationship between private speech usage and cognitive performance in young adults. Participants (n = 103, mean age = 20.21 years) were instructed to complete a visual-spatial working memory task while talking out loud to themselves as much as possible (Private Speech condition). We found that participants performed better on trials for which they produced a greater amount of private speech. To establish causality, we further found that participants performed better in the Private Speech condition than in a condition in which they were instructed to remain silent (Quiet condition). These beneficial effects of private speech were not moderated by task difficulty, which was manipulated by varying image labelability. However, participants who used more private speech during the task, as well as those who reported greater use of self-management private speech in everyday life, showed the greatest benefits. These findings have implications for real-world educational/instructional settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinqi Guo
- University of California, San Diego, United States
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4
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Logie RH. Strategies, debates, and adversarial collaboration in working memory: The 51st Bartlett Lecture. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2023; 76:2431-2460. [PMID: 37526243 PMCID: PMC10585951 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231194037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Frederic Bartlett championed the importance of individual strategy differences when remembering details of events. I will describe how long-running theoretical debates in the area of working memory may be resolved by considering differences across participants in the strategies that they use when performing cognitive tasks, and through adversarial collaboration between rival laboratories. In common with the established view within experimental cognitive psychology, I assume that adults have a range of cognitive functions, evolved for everyday life. However, I will present evidence showing that these functions can be engaged selectively for laboratory tasks, and that how they are deployed may differ between and within individuals for the same task. Reliance on aggregate data, while treating inter- and intra-participant variability in data patterns as statistical noise, may lead to misleading conclusions about theoretical principles of cognition, and of working memory in particular. Moreover, different theoretical perspectives may be focused on different levels of explanation and different theoretical goals rather than being mutually incompatible. Yet researchers from contrasting theoretical frameworks pursue science as a competition, rarely do researchers from competing labs work in collaboration, and debates self-perpetuate. These approaches to research can stall debate resolution and generate ever-increasing scientific diversity rather than scientific progress. The article concludes by describing a recent extended adversarial collaboration (the WoMAAC project) focused on theoretical contrasts in working memory, and illustrates how this approach to conducting research may help resolve scientific debate and facilitate scientific advance.
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5
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Carlos BJ, Santacroce LA, Tamber-Rosenau BJ. The slow rate of working memory consolidation from vision is a structural limit. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2210-2225. [PMID: 37495932 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02757-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
The speed with which information from vision is transformed into working memory (WM) representations that resist interference from ongoing perception and cognition is the subject of conflicting results. Using distinct paradigms, researchers have arrived at estimates of the consolidation time course ranging from 25 ms to 1 s - a range of more than an order of magnitude. However, comparisons of consolidation duration across very different estimation paradigms rely on the implicit assumption that WM consolidation speed is a stable, structural constraint of the WM system. The extremely large variation in WM consolidation speed estimates across measurement approaches motivated the current work's goal of determining whether consolidation speed truly is a stable structural constraint of WM encoding, or instead might be under strategic control as suggested by some accounts. By manipulating the relative task priority of WM encoding and a subsequent sensorimotor decision in a dual-task paradigm, the current experiments demonstrate that the long duration of WM consolidation does not change as a result of task-specific strategies. These results allow comparison of WM consolidation across estimation approaches, are consistent with recent multi-phase WM consolidation models, and are consistent with consolidation duration being an inflexible structural limit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J Carlos
- University of Houston Department of Psychology, Houston, TX, USA.
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6
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Guo X, Dobkins K. Private speech amount positively predicts memory performance in young adults. Conscious Cogn 2023; 113:103534. [PMID: 37327510 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2023.103534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 05/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
This study used a card-matching game that relies on visual-spatial working memory to investigate whether the amount one talks out loud to themselves (referred to as private speech) predicts cognitive performance in young adults (n = 118, mean age = 20.13 years). Each participant's performance was measured in two "Private Speech" trials, in which they were instructed to complete the game efficiently, while using private speech as much as they can. Using multilevel modeling, we found that participants performed significantly better on trials for which they produced more private speech. This relationship was not moderated by baseline competency on the task (measured in a condition where participants were not instructed to use, and rarely ever used, private speech). The study shows that the degree to which adults use private speech - when instructed to do so, is associated with cognitive performance, which may have important implications for educational/instructional settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinqi Guo
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego
| | - Karen Dobkins
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego.
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7
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What is the interference in “verbal interference”? Acta Psychol (Amst) 2022; 230:103774. [DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Cowan N. The Adversarial Collaboration Within Each of Us. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2022; 11:19-22. [PMID: 37346985 PMCID: PMC10284568 DOI: 10.1037/mac0000001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
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9
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Weigand R, Jacobsen T. Interruption, work rumination, and stress as indicators of reduced working memory resources affect aesthetic experiences. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2021; 75:1272-1288. [PMID: 34609212 DOI: 10.1177/17470218211050194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Do we savour aesthetic experiences less when distracted by interrupted tasks, work rumination, or stress? Evidence suggests that the ability to concentrate on the aesthetic experience is crucial for initiating a processing mode of conscious aesthetic reception that results in more positive emotions. When working memory resources are otherwise occupied, people are less able to concentrate on aesthetic experiences. Aesthetic savouring, in particular-a cognitive form of emotion regulation that is used to maintain and extend aesthetic experiences-is thought to be impaired under those circumstances. We conducted three investigations to examine how conditions that are known to deplete working memory resources affect the savouring of aesthetic experiences. In Study 1, participants rated beauty and savouring felt from encounters with visual stimuli in a controlled laboratory setting after an interruption of a writing task. Aesthetic experience was hampered if participants were interrupted. In two field investigations, we demonstrated that work-related rumination (Study 2, N = 329) and stress (Study 3, N = 368) are inversely related to the savouring felt from opera, theatre, or cabaret pieces. These findings highlight the importance of concentrating on aesthetic experiences so that the perceiver can fully benefit from them. We also discuss implications for cognitive models of working memory and for health and well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalie Weigand
- Experimental Psychology Unit, Humanities and Social Sciences, Helmut Schmidt University / University of the Federal Armed Forces Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Jacobsen
- Experimental Psychology Unit, Humanities and Social Sciences, Helmut Schmidt University / University of the Federal Armed Forces Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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10
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Brauner FO, Balbinot G, Figueiredo AI, Hausen DO, Schiavo A, Mestriner RG. The Performance Index Identifies Changes Across the Dual Task Timed Up and Go Test Phases and Impacts Task-Cost Estimation in the Oldest-Old. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:720719. [PMID: 34658817 PMCID: PMC8514992 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.720719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Dual tasking is common in activities of daily living (ADLs) and the ability to perform them usually declines with age. While cognitive aspects influence dual task (DT) performance, most DT-cost (DT-C) related metrics include only time- or speed- delta without weighting the accuracy of cognitive replies involved in the task. Objectives: The primary study goal was to weight the accuracy of cognitive replies as a contributing factor when estimating DT-C using a new index of DT-C that considers the accuracy of cognitive replies (P-index) in the instrumented timed up and go test (iTUG). Secondarily, to correlate the novel P-index with domains of the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Methods: Sixty-three participants (≥85 years old) took part in this study. The single task (ST) and DT iTUG tests were performed in a semi-random order. Both the time taken to complete the task measured utilizing an inertial measurement unit (IMU), and the accuracy of the cognitive replies were used to create the novel P-index. Clinical and sociodemographic data were collected. Results: The accuracy of the cognitive replies changed across the iTUG phases, particularly between the walk 1 and walk 2 phases. Moreover, weighting 0.6 for delta-time (W1) and 0.4 for cognitive replies (W2) into the P-index enhanced the prediction of the MMSE score. The novel P-index was able to explain 37% of the scores obtained by the fallers in the “spatial orientation” and “attention” domains of the MMSE. The ability of the P-index to predict MMSE scores was not significantly influenced by age, schooling, and number of medicines in use. The Bland-Altman analysis indicated a substantial difference between the time-delta-based DT-C and P-index methods, which was within the limits of agreement. Conclusions: The P-index incorporates the accuracy of cognitive replies when calculating the DT-C and better reflects the variance of the MMSE in comparison with the traditional time- or speed-delta approaches, thus providing an improved method to estimate the DT-C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiane Oliveira Brauner
- Graduate Program in Biomedical Gerontology, School of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Neuroplasticity and Neural Repair Research Group, Health and Life Sciences School, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Balbinot
- KITE - Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Anelise Ineu Figueiredo
- Graduate Program in Biomedical Gerontology, School of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Neuroplasticity and Neural Repair Research Group, Health and Life Sciences School, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Daiane Oliveira Hausen
- Graduate Program in Biomedical Gerontology, School of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Neuroplasticity and Neural Repair Research Group, Health and Life Sciences School, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Aniuska Schiavo
- Graduate Program in Biomedical Gerontology, School of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Neuroplasticity and Neural Repair Research Group, Health and Life Sciences School, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Régis Gemerasca Mestriner
- Graduate Program in Biomedical Gerontology, School of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Neuroplasticity and Neural Repair Research Group, Health and Life Sciences School, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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11
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Spontaneous recognition: Investigating the role of working memory. Mem Cognit 2021; 49:1665-1676. [PMID: 34085209 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-021-01194-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In almost every aspect of life, focusing on a target and ignoring distractors effectively is very important. Alternative to the common view, distraction may aid recognition via triggering automatic responses. Spontaneous recognition (SR) can be defined as the unintentional recognition of target stimuli and is measured by the effect of familiarity to distractors on a recognition task. Research has indicated that previously seen or not seen (old/new) distractors affect the recognition of targets. This research aimed to investigate the influence of working memory load on SR. A dual-task was designed to ensure engagement in two tasks-namely, the memory Stroop task (recognition task) and the n-back task (working memory task) at the same time. This design enabled an investigation of the influence of working memory load and allowed for further exploration of the influence of episodic memory load and the characteristics of n-back task. The results are in line with previous research; participants were more accurate when target and distractor were congruent versus when they were incongruent, but only when WM load was high. This interaction was modulated by episodic memory load and n-back task trials (match/mismatch). It was concluded that many factors may contribute to the SR effect. This research demonstrated that the SR effect is determined by WM availability and recognition processes engaged in another task.
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12
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Jaroslawska AJ, Rhodes S, Belletier C, Doherty JM, Cowan N, Neveh-Benjamin M, Barrouillet P, Camos V, Logie RH. What affects the magnitude of age-related dual-task costs in working memory? The role of stimulus domain and access to semantic representations. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2021; 74:682-704. [PMID: 33073696 PMCID: PMC8044618 DOI: 10.1177/1747021820970744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Although there is evidence that the effect of including a concurrent processing demand on the storage of information in working memory is disproportionately larger for older than younger adults, not all studies show this age-related impairment, and the critical factors responsible for any such impairment remain elusive. Here we assess whether domain overlap between storage and processing activities, and access to semantic representations, are important determinants of performance in a sample of younger and older adults (N = 119). We developed four versions of a processing task by manipulating the type of stimuli involved (either verbal or non-verbal) and the decision that participants had to make about the stimuli presented on the screen. Participants either had to perform a spatial judgement, in deciding whether the verbal or non-verbal item was presented above or below the centre of the screen, or a semantic judgement, in deciding whether the stimulus refers to something living or not living. The memory task was serial-ordered recall of visually presented letters. The study revealed a large increase in age-related memory differences when concurrent processing was required. These differences were smaller when storage and processing activities both used verbal materials. Dual-task effects on processing were also disproportionate for older adults. Age differences in processing performance appeared larger for tasks requiring spatial decisions rather than semantic decisions. We discuss these findings in relation to three competing frameworks of working memory and the extant literature on cognitive ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka J Jaroslawska
- School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- School of Psychology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - Stephen Rhodes
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Clément Belletier
- School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Jason M Doherty
- School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Nelson Cowan
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | | | - Pierre Barrouillet
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Valerie Camos
- Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Robert H Logie
- School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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13
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Coats RO, Waterman AH, Ryder F, Atkinson AL, Allen RJ. Following Instructions in Working Memory: Do Older Adults Show the Enactment Advantage? J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2021; 76:703-710. [PMID: 33254224 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbaa214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In young adults, the ability to verbally recall instructions in working memory is enhanced if the sequences are physically enacted by the participant (self-enactment) or the experimenter (demonstration) during encoding. Here we examine the effects of self-enactment and demonstration at encoding on working memory performance in older and younger adults. METHOD Fifty young (18-23 years) and 40 older (60-89 years) adults listened to sequences of novel action-object pairs before verbally recalling them in the correct order. There were three different encoding conditions: spoken only, spoken + demonstration, and spoken + self-enactment. We included two different levels of difficulty to investigate whether task complexity moderated the effect of encoding condition and whether this differed between age groups. RESULTS Relative to the spoken only condition, demonstration significantly improved young and older adults' serial recall performance, but self-enactment only enhanced performance in the young adults, and this boost was smaller than the one gained through demonstration. DISCUSSION Our findings suggest that additional spatial-motoric information is beneficial for older adults when the actions are demonstrated to them, but not when the individual must enact the instructions themselves.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Fiona Ryder
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Amy L Atkinson
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.,Centre for Applied Education Research, Wolfson Centre for Applied Health Research, Bradford Royal Infirmary, West Yorkshire, UK
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14
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Attention effects in working memory that are asymmetric across sensory modalities. Mem Cognit 2021; 49:1050-1065. [PMID: 33694052 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-021-01142-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A key unanswered question about working memory is the nature of interference between items. At one extreme of existing theories, interference occurs between any two items because of a general capacity limit. At another extreme, interference depends on the similarity between particular features of different items. We examine this question in three experiments by presenting two sets of items on each trial, comprising tones or colors, with three levels of similarity between the two sets: cross-modal, unimodal with different marking features (two different musical instruments or shapes), and unimodal with the same marking feature. Another question is the extent to which the entry of presented items into working memory is obligatory or optional, which we examined by requiring retention of the first, the second, or both sets of stimuli for a recognition test shortly after the presentation of the two sets. The combination of the set similarity and attention manipulations allows us to draw conclusions about the nature of working-memory storage. The findings were not entirely in accord with any pre-existing theory. The effects of feature similarity were present in both modalities but more pronounced for sounds, whereas the detrimental effects of attention to both sets for retention occurred only for visual stimuli. Based on the findings we suggest a new, hybrid conception of working memory storage.
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15
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Moreira PED, Dieguez GTDO, Bredt SDGT, Praça GM. The Acute and Chronic Effects of Dual-Task on the Motor and Cognitive Performances in Athletes: A Systematic Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18041732. [PMID: 33579018 PMCID: PMC7916747 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18041732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Athletes must distribute their attention to many relevant cues during a match. Therefore, athletes’ ability to deal with dual-tasks may be different from the non-athlete population, demanding a deeper investigation within the sports domain. This study aimed to systematically review the acute and chronic effects of dual-tasks in motor and cognitive performances in athletes from different modalities. The search for articles followed all the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The keywords used were: “dual-task” OR “double task” OR “multi-task” OR “divided attention” OR “secondary task” OR “second task” AND “working memory” OR “visual” OR “decision making” OR “gaze behavior” OR “attention” AND “sports” OR “athletes” OR “players”. The Scopus, Pubmed, and Web of Science databases were screened for studies comparing single and dual-tasks, in which the participants were athletes competing at any level, and in which at least one of the following variables were investigated: working memory, decision-making, visual search behavior, perception, anticipation, attention, or motor tasks. Articles were screened using pre-defined selection criteria, and methodological quality was assessed by two researchers independently. Following the eligibility criteria, we included 18 articles in the review: 13 on the acute effects, and five on the chronic effects. This review showed that the acute effect of dual-tasks impairs the motor and cognitive performances of athletes (dual-task cost). However, training with dual-tasks (chronic effect) improved working memory skills and attentional control. We conclude that dual-tasks acutely and chronically impacts motor and cognitive performance.
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16
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Cowan N, AuBuchon AM, Gilchrist AL, Blume CL, Boone AP, Saults JS. Developmental change in the nature of attention allocation in a dual task. Dev Psychol 2021; 57:33-46. [PMID: 33271032 PMCID: PMC7959247 DOI: 10.1037/dev0001134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Younger children have more difficulty in sharing attention between two concurrent tasks than do older participants, but in addition to this developmental change, we documented changes in the nature of attention sharing. We studied children 6-8 and 10-14 years old and college students (in all, 104 women and 76 men; 3% Hispanic, 3% Black or African American, 3% Asian, 7% multiracial, and 84% White). On each dual-task trial, the participant received an array of colored squares to be retained for a subsequent probe recognition test and then an easy or more difficult signal requiring a quick response (a speeded task, clicking a key on the same side of the screen as the signal or the opposite side). Finally, each trial ended with the presentation of the array item recognition probe and the participant's response to it. In our youngest age group (6-8 years), array memory was often displaced by the speeded task performed under load, especially when it was the opposite-side task, but speeded-task accuracies were unaffected by the presence of an array memory load. In contrast, in older participants (10-14 years and college students), the memory load was maintained better, with some cost to the speeded task. With maturity, participants were better able to adopt a proactive stance in which not only present processing demands but also upcoming demands were taken into account, allowing them to balance the demands of the two tasks. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson Cowan
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri
| | | | | | | | | | - J Scott Saults
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri
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Jaroslawska AJ, Bartup G, Forsberg A, Holmes J. Age-related differences in adults' ability to follow spoken instructions. Memory 2020; 29:117-128. [PMID: 33320055 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2020.1860228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of research illustrates that working memory capacity is a crucial limiting factor in our ability to follow spoken instructions. Despite the ubiquitous nature of instruction following throughout the lifespan, how the natural ageing process affects the ability to do so is not yet fully understood. In this study, we investigated the consequences of action at encoding and recall on the ability to follow spoken instructions. Younger (< 30 y/o) and older (> 65 y/o) adults recalled sequences of spoken action commands under presentation and recall conditions that either did or did not involve their physical performance. Both groups showed an enacted-recall advantage, with superior recall by physical performance than oral repetition. When both encoding and recall were purely verbal, older adults' recall accuracy was comparable to that of their younger counterparts. When action was involved at either encoding or recall, however, the difference in performance between the two age groups became pronounced: enactment-based encoding significantly improved younger adults' ability to follow spoken instructions; there was no such advantage for older adults. These data show that spatial-motoric representations disproportionately benefit younger adults' memory performance. We discuss the practical implications of these findings in the context of lifelong learning.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Joni Holmes
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, The University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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Allen RJ, Atkinson AL, Nicholls LAB. Strategic prioritisation enhances young and older adults' visual feature binding in working memory. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2020; 74:363-376. [PMID: 32933421 PMCID: PMC8044628 DOI: 10.1177/1747021820960712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Visual working memory for features and bindings is susceptible to age-related decline. Two experiments were used to examine whether older adults are able to strategically prioritise more valuable information in working memory and whether this could reduce age-related impairments. Younger (18–33 years) and older (60–90 years) adults were presented with coloured shapes and, following a brief delay, asked to recall the feature that had accompanied the probe item. In Experiment 1, participants were either asked to prioritise a more valuable object in the array (serial position 1, 2, or 3) or to treat them all equally. Older adults exhibited worse overall memory performance but were as able as younger adults to prioritise objects. In both groups, this ability was particularly apparent at the middle serial position. Experiment 2 then explored whether younger and older adults’ prioritisation is affected by presentation time. Replicating Experiment 1, older adults were able to prioritise the more valuable object in working memory, showing equivalent benefits and costs as younger adults. However, processing speed, as indexed by presentation time, was shown not to limit strategic prioritisation in either age group. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that, although older adults have poorer visual working memory overall, the ability to strategically direct attention to more valuable items in working memory is preserved across ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amy L Atkinson
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.,Centre for Applied Education Research, Wolfson Centre for Applied Health Research, Bradford Royal Infirmary, Bradford, UK
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Siri JM, Touron DR. Metacognitive predictions and strategic adaptation to distractors. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENT, AND COGNITION. SECTION B, AGING, NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2020; 27:787-805. [PMID: 31658871 DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2019.1681356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Multitasking is ubiquitous, and substantial evidence has documented the impact on cognitive performance. People do not seem to recognize their multitasking deficits, however, as there is a lack of correspondence between predicted and actualperformance. We have less clarity about how people adapt to multitasking, and howthis varies with age. Thisstudy investigated metacognitive predictions and strategic adaptation in old and young adults using concurrent laboratory tasks. The primary task was visuospatial navigation and the secondary task was visual serial addition. Participants completed each task alone, and then two blocks concurrently. The second dual task block allowed participants to adapt the speed of the navigation task. Young adults performed better than old, and performance suffered with dual tasks for both ages. Predictions were loosely calibrated to navigation performance. Both age groups adapted to multitasking via speed selection, with greater conservatism by older adults, but adapation was not related to predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M Siri
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro , Greensboro, NC, USA
| | - Dayna R Touron
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro , Greensboro, NC, USA
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20
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Abstract
Although it is well known that distraction impairs immediate retrieval of items maintained in working memory (WM; e.g., during complex span tasks), some evidence suggests that these items are more likely to be recalled from episodic memory (EM) compared with items that were studied without any distraction (e.g., during simple span tasks). One account for this delayed advantage of complex span over simple span, or the McCabe effect (McCabe, Journal of Memory and Language, 58[2], 480–494, 2008), is that complex span affords covert retrieval opportunities that facilitate later retrieval from EM by cumulatively reactivating each successively presented item after distraction. This explanation focuses on the processing that occurs during presentation and maintenance of the items, but no work to date has explored whether the differential demands of immediate retrieval between simple and complex span may explain the effect. Accordingly, these experiments examined the impact of immediate retrieval demands on the McCabe effect by comparing typical immediate serial-recall instructions (i.e., recalling the words in their exact order of presentation) to immediate free-recall (Experiments 1–2) and no-recall (Experiments 2 and 3) instructions. The results suggested that the nature of retrieval may constrain the McCabe effect in some situations (Experiments 1–2), but its demands do not drive the McCabe effect given that it was observed in both serial-recall and no-recall conditions (Experiment 3). Instead, activities such as covert retrieval during the processing phase may underlie the McCabe effect, thus further evidencing the importance of processing in WM for the long-term retention of information.
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Cowan N, Belletier C, Doherty JM, Jaroslawska AJ, Rhodes S, Forsberg A, Naveh-Benjamin M, Barrouillet P, Camos V, Logie RH. How Do Scientific Views Change? Notes From an Extended Adversarial Collaboration. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2020; 15:1011-1025. [PMID: 32511059 PMCID: PMC7334077 DOI: 10.1177/1745691620906415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There are few examples of an extended adversarial collaboration, in which investigators committed to different theoretical views collaborate to test opposing predictions. Whereas previous adversarial collaborations have produced single research articles, here, we share our experience in programmatic, extended adversarial collaboration involving three laboratories in different countries with different theoretical views regarding working memory, the limited information retained in mind, serving ongoing thought and action. We have focused on short-term memory retention of items (letters) during a distracting task (arithmetic), and effects of aging on these tasks. Over several years, we have conducted and published joint research with preregistered predictions, methods, and analysis plans, with replication of each study across two laboratories concurrently. We argue that, although an adversarial collaboration will not usually induce senior researchers to abandon favored theoretical views and adopt opposing views, it will necessitate varieties of their views that are more similar to one another, in that they must account for a growing, common corpus of evidence. This approach promotes understanding of others' views and presents to the field research findings accepted as valid by researchers with opposing interpretations. We illustrate this process with our own research experiences and make recommendations applicable to diverse scientific areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson Cowan
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri
| | - Clément Belletier
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Sociale et Cognitive (LAPSCO), Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS
| | | | | | | | - Alicia Forsberg
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri
| | | | - Pierre Barrouillet
- Faculté de Psychologie et des Sciences de l'Éducation, Université de Genève
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Morey CC, Rhodes S, Cowan N. Co-existing, contradictory working memory models are ready for progressive refinement: Reply to Logie. Cortex 2020; 123:200-202. [PMID: 31916991 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2019.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Stephen Rhodes
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest Health Sciences, Toronto, Canada
| | - Nelson Cowan
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, United States of America
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Cowan N. Short-term memory based on activated long-term memory: A review in response to Norris (2017). Psychol Bull 2019; 145:822-847. [PMID: 31328941 PMCID: PMC6650160 DOI: 10.1037/bul0000199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Short-term memory (STM), the limited information temporarily in a state of heightened accessibility, includes just-presented events and recently retrieved information. Norris (2017) argued for a prominent class of theories in which STM depends on the brain keeping a separate copy of new information, and against alternatives in which the information is held only in a portion of long-term memory (LTM) that is currently activated (aLTM). Here I question premises of Norris' case for separate-copy theories in the following ways. (a) He did not allow for implications of the common assumption (e.g., Cowan, 1999; Cowan & Chen, 2009) that aLTM can include new, rapidly formed LTM records of a trial within an STM task. (b) His conclusions from pathological cases of impaired STM along with intact LTM are tenuous; these rare cases can be explained by impairments in encoding, processing, or retrieval related to LTM rather than passive maintenance. (c) Although Norris reasonably allowed structured pointers to aLTM instead of separate copies of the actual item representations in STM, the same structured pointers may well be involved in long-term learning. (d) Last, models of STM storage can serve as the front end of an LTM learning system rather than being separate. I summarize evidence for these premises and an updated version of an alternative theory in which storage depends on aLTM (newly clarified), and, embedded within it, information enhanced by the current focus of attention (Cowan, 1988, 1999), with no need for a separate STM copy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
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Logie RH. Converging sources of evidence and theory integration in working memory: A commentary on Morey, Rhodes, and Cowan (2019). Cortex 2019; 112:162-171. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2019.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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