Dual-targeted hybrid nanoparticles of synergistic drugs for treating lung metastases of triple negative breast cancer in mice

In-vivo studies of targeted and localized cancer drug release from microporous poly-di-methyl-siloxane (PDMS) devices for the treatment of triple negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) treatment is challenging and frequently characterized by an aggressive phenotype and low prognosis in comparison to other subtypes. This paper presents fabricated implantable drug-loaded microporous poly-di-methyl-siloxane (PDMS) devices for the delivery of targeted therapeutic agents [Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone conjugated paclitaxel (PTX-LHRH) and Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone conjugated prodigiosin (PG-LHRH)] for the treatment and possible prevention of triple-negative cancer recurrence. In vitro assessment using the Alamar blue assay demonstrated a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in percentage of cell growth in a time-dependent manner in the groups treated with PG, PG-LHRH, PTX, and PTX-LHRH. Subcutaneous triple-negative xenograft breast tumors were then induced in athymic female nude mice that were four weeks old. Two weeks later, the tumors were surgically but partially removed, and the device implanted. Mice were observed for tumor regrowth and organ toxicity. The animal study revealed that there was no tumor regrowth, six weeks post-treatment, when the LHRH targeted drugs (LHRH-PTX and LHRH-PGS) were used for the treatment. The possible cytotoxic effects of the released drugs on the liver, kidney, and lung are assessed using quantitative biochemical assay from blood samples of the treatment groups. Ex vivo histopathological results from organ tissues showed that the targeted cancer drugs released from the implantable drug-loaded device did not induce any adverse effect on the liver, kidneys, or lungs, based on the results of qualitative toxicity studies. The implications of the results are discussed for the targeted and localized treatment of triple negative breast cancer.

Nanomedicine-Based Drug-Targeting in Breast Cancer: Pharmacokinetics, Clinical Progress, and Challenges

Breast cancer (BC) is a malignant neoplasm that begins in the breast tissue. After skin cancer, BC is the second most common type of cancer in women. At the end of 2040, the number of newly diagnosed BC cases is projected to increase by over 40%, reaching approximately 3 million worldwide annually. The hormonal and chemotherapeutic approaches based on conventional formulations have inappropriate therapeutic effects and suboptimal pharmacokinetic responses with nonspecific targeting actions. To overcome such issues, the use of nanomedicines, including liposomes, nanoparticles, micelles, hybrid nanoparticles, etc., has gained wider attention in the treatment of BC. Smaller dimensional nanomedicine (especially 50-200 nm) exhibited improved in vivo effectiveness, such as better tissue penetration and more effective tumor suppression through enhanced retention and permeation, as well as active targeting of the drug. Additionally, nanotechnology, which further extended and developed theranostic nanomedicine by incorporating diagnostic and imaging agents in one platform, has been applied to BC. Furthermore, hybrid and theranostic nanomedicine has also been explored for gene delivery as anticancer therapeutics in BC. Moreover, the nanocarriers' size, shape, surface charge, chemical compositions, and surface area play an important role in the nanocarriers' stability, cellular absorption, cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, and toxicity. Additionally, nanomedicine clinical translation for managing BC remains a slow process. However, a few cases are being used clinically, and their progress with the current challenges is addressed in this Review. Therefore, this Review extensively discusses recent advancements in nanomedicine and its clinical challenges in BC.

Docetaxel-loaded pH/ROS dual-responsive nanoparticles with self-supplied ROS for inhibiting metastasis and enhancing immunotherapy of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Although stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms were developed to deliver immunogenic cell death (ICD) inducers to enhance cancer immunotherapy, the complete release of ICD inducers into the tumor microenvironment (TME) was limited by the inadequate supplementation of endogenous stimulus (e.g., reactive oxygen species (ROS)). To address this issue, we synthesized a self-responsive nanomaterial with self-supplied ROS, which mainly consists of a ROS responsive moiety HPAP and cinnamaldehyde (CA) as the ROS-generating agent. The endogenous ROS can accelerate the degradation of HPAP in materials to release docetaxel (DTX, an ICD inducer). In intracellular acidic environment, the pH-sensitive acetal was cleaved to release CA. The released CA in turn induces the generation of more ROS through mitochondrial damage, resulting in amplified DTX release. Using this self-cycling and self-responsive nanomaterial as a carrier, DTX-loaded pH/ROS dual-responsive nanoparticles (DTX/FA-CA-Oxi-αCD NPs) were fabricated and evaluated in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

In vitro experiments validated that the NPs could be effectively internalized by FA-overexpressed cells and completely release DTX in acidic and ROS microenvironments to induce ICD effect. These NPs significantly blocked 4T1 cell migration and decreased cell invasion. In vivo experiments demonstrated that the tumor-targeted NPs significantly inhibited tumor growth and blocked tumor metastasis. More importantly, these NPs significantly improved immunotherapy through triggering effector T-cell activation and relieving the immunosuppressive state of the TME.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrated that DTX/FA-CA-Oxi-αCD NPs displayed great potential in preventing tumor metastasis, inhibiting tumor growth, and improving the efficacy of anti-PD-1antibody.

Multifunctional nanostructures: Intelligent design to overcome biological barriers

Over the past three decades, nanoscience has offered a unique solution for reducing the systemic toxicity of chemotherapy drugs and for increasing drug therapeutic efficiency. However, the poor accumulation and pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles are some of the key reasons for their slow translation into the clinic. The is intimately linked to the non-biological nature of nanoparticles and the aberrant features of solid cancer, which together significantly compromise nanoparticle delivery. New findings on the unique properties of tumors and their interactions with nanoparticles and the human body suggest that, contrary to what was long-believed, tumor features may be more mirage than miracle, as the enhanced permeability and retention based efficacy is estimated to be as low as 1%. In this review, we highlight the current barriers and available solutions to pave the way for approved nanoformulations. Furthermore, we aim to discuss the main solutions to solve inefficient drug delivery with the use of nanobioengineering of nanocarriers and the tumor environment. Finally, we will discuss the suggested strategies to overcome two or more biological barriers with one nanocarrier. The variety of design formats, applications and implications of each of these methods will also be evaluated.

Boosting the Potential of Chemotherapy in Advanced Breast Cancer Lung Metastasis via Micro-Combinatorial Hydrogel Particles

Breast cancer cell colonization of the lungs is associated with a dismal prognosis as the distributed nature of the disease and poor permeability of the metastatic foci challenge the therapeutic efficacy of small molecules, antibodies, and nanomedicines. Taking advantage of the unique physiology of the pulmonary circulation, here, micro-combinatorial hydrogel particles (µCGP) are realized via soft lithographic techniques to enhance the specific delivery of a cocktail of cytotoxic nanoparticles to metastatic foci. By cross-linking short poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chains with erodible linkers within a shape-defining template, a deformable and biodegradable polymeric skeleton is realized and loaded with a variety of therapeutic and imaging agents, including docetaxel-nanoparticles. In a model of advanced breast cancer lung metastasis, µCGP amplified the colocalization of docetaxel-nanoparticles with pulmonary metastatic foci, prolonged the retention of chemotoxic molecules at the diseased site, suppressed lesion growth, and boosted survival beyond 20 weeks post nodule engraftment. The flexible design and modular architecture of µCGP would allow the efficient deployment of complex combination therapies in other vascular districts too, possibly addressing metastatic diseases of different origins.

Special Issue: Nanotherapeutics in Women's Health Emerging Nanotechnologies for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer appears as the major cause of cancer-related deaths in women, with more than 2 260 000 cases reported worldwide in 2020, resulting in 684 996 deaths. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), characterized by the absence of estrogen, progesterone, and human epidermal growth factor type 2 receptors, represents ≈20% of all breast cancers. TNBC has a highly aggressive clinical course and is more prevalent in younger women. The standard therapy for advanced TNBC is chemotherapy, but responses are often short-lived, with high rate of relapse. The lack of therapeutic targets and the limited therapeutic options confer to individuals suffering from TNBC the poorest prognosis among breast cancer patients, remaining a major clinical challenge. In recent years, advances in cancer nanomedicine provided innovative therapeutic options, as nanoformulations play an important role in overcoming the shortcomings left by conventional therapies: payload degradation and its low solubility, stability, and circulating half-life, and difficulties regarding biodistribution due to physiological and biological barriers. In this integrative review, the recent advances in the nanomedicine field for TNBC treatment, including the novel nanoparticle-, exosome-, and hybrid-based therapeutic formulations are summarized and their drawbacks and challenges are discussed for future clinical applications.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticles as a Pivotal Delivery Approach in Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) Therapy

Triple-negative breast cancer is considered the most aggressive type of breast cancer among women and the lack of expressed receptors has made treatment options substantially limited. Recently, various types of nanoparticles have emerged as a therapeutic option against TNBC, to elevate the therapeutic efficacy of the existing chemotherapeutics. Among the various nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles (LNPs) viz. liposomes, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid nanocarriers, and lipid–polymer hybrid nanoparticles are developed for cancer treatment which is well confirmed and documented. LNPs include various therapeutic advantages as compared to conventional therapy and other nanoparticles, including increased loading capacity, enhanced temporal and thermal stability, decreased therapeutic dose and associated toxicity, and limited drug resistance. In addition to these, LNPs overcome physiological barriers which provide increased accumulation of therapeutics at the target site. Extensive efforts by the scientific community could make some of the liposomal formulations the clinical reality; however, the relatively high cost, problems in scaling up the formulations, and delivery in a more targetable fashion are some of the major issues that need to be addressed. In the present review, we have compiled the state of the art about different types of LNPs with the latest advances reported for the treatment of TNBC in recent years, along with their clinical status and toxicity in detail.

Advances in lipid-based nanocarriers for breast cancer metastasis treatment

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer affecting women worldwide, with over 2 million women diagnosed every year, and close to 8 million women currently alive following a diagnosis of BC in the last 5-years. The side effects such as chemodrug toxicity to healthy tissues and drug resistance severely affect the quality of life of BC patients. To overcome these limitations, many efforts have been made to develop nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems. Among these nanocarriers, lipid-based delivery platforms represented one of the most successful candidates for cancer therapy, improving the safety profile and therapeutic efficacy of encapsulated drugs. In this review we will mainly discuss and summarize the recent advances in such delivery systems for BC metastasis treatment, with a particular focus on targeting the common metastatic sites in bone, brain and lung. We will also provide our perspectives on lipid-based nanocarrier development for future clinical translation.

Sugar-induced self-assembly of curcumin-based polydopamine nanocapsules with high loading capacity for dual drug delivery

Many drug delivery carriers reported in the literature require multistep assembly or often have very low drug loading capacities. Here, we present a simple sugar-based strategy that feeds the increased interest in high-loading nanomedicine. The driving force of the supramolecular nanocapsule formation is the interaction between curcumin (CCM) and the monosaccharide fructose. Drug and sugar are simply mixed in an aqueous solution in an open vessel, followed by coating the nanocapsules with polydopamine (PDA) to maintain structural integrity. We show that nanocapsules can still be obtained when other drugs are added, producing dual-drug nanoparticles with sizes of around 150-200 nm and drug loading contents of around 90% depending on the thickness of the PDA shell. This concept is widely applicable for a broad variety of drugs, as long as the drug has similar polarities to CCM. The key to success is the interaction of CCM and the second drug as shown in computational studies. The drug was able to be released from the nanocapsule at a release rate that could be fine-tuned by adjusting the thickness of the PDA layer.

Advances in Nanomedicine Design: Multidisciplinary Strategies for Unmet Medical Needs

Globally, a rising burden of complex diseases takes a heavy toll on human lives and poses substantial clinical and economic challenges. This review covers nanomedicine and nanotechnology-enabled advanced drug delivery systems (DDS) designed to address various unmet medical needs. Key nanomedicine and DDSs, currently employed in the clinic to tackle some of these diseases, are discussed focusing on their versatility in diagnostics, anticancer therapy, and diabetes management. First-hand experiences from our own laboratory and the work of others are presented to provide insights into strategies to design and optimize nanomedicine- and nanotechnology-enabled DDS for enhancing therapeutic outcomes. Computational analysis is also briefly reviewed as a technology for rational design of controlled release DDS. Further explorations of DDS have illuminated the interplay of physiological barriers and their impact on DDS. It is demonstrated how such delivery systems can overcome these barriers for enhanced therapeutic efficacy and how new perspectives of next-generation DDS can be applied clinically.

Rational Mitomycin Nanocarriers Based on Hydrophobically Functionalized Polyelectrolytes and Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)

Encapsulation of hydrophilic and amphiphilic drugs in appropriate colloidal carrier systems for sustained release is an emerging problem. In general, hydrophobic bioactive substances tend to accumulate in water-immiscible polymeric domains, and the release process is controlled by their low aqueous solubility and limited diffusion from the nanocarrier matrix. Conversely, hydrophilic/amphiphilic drugs are typically water-soluble and insoluble in numerous polymers. Therefore, a core-shell approach─nanocarriers comprising an internal core and external shell microenvironments of different properties─can be exploited for hydrophilic/amphiphilic drugs. To produce colloidally stable poly(lactic-co-glycolic) (PLGA) nanoparticles for mitomycin C (MMC) delivery and controlled release, a unique class of amphiphilic polymers─hydrophobically functionalized polyelectrolytes─were utilized as shell-forming materials, comprising both stabilization via electrostatic repulsive forces and anchoring to the core via hydrophobic interactions. Undoubtedly, the use of these polymeric building blocks for the core-shell approach contributes to the enhancement of the payload chemical stability and sustained release profiles. The studied nanoparticles were prepared via nanoprecipitation of the PLGA polymer and were dissolved in acetone as a good solvent and in an aqueous solution containing hydrophobically functionalized poly(4-styrenesulfonic-co-maleic acid) and poly(acrylic acid) of differing hydrophilic-lipophilic balance values. The type of the hydrophobically functionalized polyelectrolyte (HF-PE) was crucial for the chemical stability of the payload─derivatives of poly(acrylic acid) were found to cause very rapid degradation (hydrolysis) of MMC, in contrast to poly(4-styrenesulfonic-co-maleic acid). The present contribution allowed us to gain crucial information about novel colloidal nanocarrier systems for MMC delivery, especially in the fields of optimal HF-PE concentrations, appropriate core and shell building materials, and the colloidal and chemical stability of the system.

Emergence of Nanotechnology as a Powerful Cavalry against Triple-Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC)

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is considered one of the un-manageable types of breast cancer, involving devoid of estrogen, progesterone, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER 2) receptors. Due to their ability of recurrence and metastasis, the management of TNBC remains a mainstay challenge, despite the advancements in cancer therapies. Conventional chemotherapy remains the only treatment regimen against TNBC and suffers several limitations such as low bioavailability, systemic toxicity, less targetability, and multi-drug resistance. Although various targeted therapies have been introduced to manage the hardship of TNBC, they still experience certain limitations associated with the survival benefits. The current research thus aimed at developing and improving the strategies for effective therapy against TNBC. Such strategies involved the emergence of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are designated as nanocavalries, loaded with various agents (drugs, genes, etc.) to battle the progression and metastasis of TNBC along with overcoming the limitations experienced by conventional chemotherapy and targeted therapy. This article documents the treatment regimens of TNBC along with their efficacy towards different subtypes of TNBC, and the various nanotechnologies employed to increase the therapeutic outcome of FDA-approved drug regimens.

Ligand-mediated nanomedicines against breast cancer: a review

Ligand-mediated targeting represents the cutting edge in precision-guided therapy for several diseases. Surface engineering of nanomedicines with ligands exhibiting selective or tailored affinity for overexpressed biomolecules of a specific disease may increase therapeutic efficiency and reduce side effects and recurrence. This review focuses on newly developed approaches and strategies to improve treatment and overcome the mechanisms associated with breast cancer resistance.

Translating pharmacology models effectively to predict therapeutic benefit

Many in vitro and in vivo models are used in pharmacological research to evaluate the role of targeted proteins in a disease. Understanding the translational relevance and limitation of these models for analyzing the disposition, pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) profile, mechanism, and efficacy of a drug, is essential when selecting the most appropriate model of the disease of interest and predicting clinically efficacious doses of the investigational drug. Here, we review selected animal models used in ophthalmology, infectious diseases, oncology, autoimmune diseases, and neuroscience. Each area has specific challenges around translatability and determination of an efficacious dose: new patient-specific dosing methods could help overcome these limitations.

Functionalized Liposome and Albumin-Based Systems as Carriers for Poorly Water-Soluble Anticancer Drugs: An Updated Review

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. In the available treatments, chemotherapy is one of the most used, but has several associated problems, namely the high toxicity to normal cells and the resistance acquired by cancer cells to the therapeutic agents. The scientific community has been battling against this disease, developing new strategies and new potential chemotherapeutic agents. However, new drugs often exhibit poor solubility in water, which led researchers to develop functionalized nanosystems to carry and, specifically deliver, the drugs to cancer cells, targeting overexpressed receptors, proteins, and organelles. Thus, this review is focused on the recent developments of functionalized nanosystems used to carry poorly water-soluble drugs, with special emphasis on liposomes and albumin-based nanosystems, two major classes of organic nanocarriers with formulations already approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for cancer therapeutics.

Photochemical Internalization of Etoposide Using Dendrimer Nanospheres Loaded with Etoposide and Protoporphyrin IX on a Glioblastoma Cell Line

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common malignant primary neoplasm of the adult central nervous system originating from glial cells. The prognosis of those affected by GBM has remained poor despite advances in surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Photochemical internalization (PCI) is a release mechanism of endocytosed therapeutics into the cytoplasm, which relies on the membrane disruptive effect of light-activated photosensitizers. In this study, phototherapy by PCI was performed on a human GBM cell-line using the topoisomerase II inhibitor etoposide (Etop) and the photosensitizer protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) loaded in nanospheres (Ns) made from generation-5 polyamidoamine dendrimers (PAMAM(G5)). The resultant formulation, Etop/PpIX-PAMAM(G5) Ns, measured 217.4 ± 2.9 nm in diameter and 40.5 ± 1.3 mV in charge. Confocal microscopy demonstrated PpIX fluorescence within the endo-lysosomal compartment, and an almost twofold increase in cellular uptake compared to free PpIX by flow cytometry. Phototherapy with 3 min and 5 min light illumination resulted in a greater extent of synergism than with co-administered Etop and PpIX; notably, antagonism was observed without light illumination. Mechanistically, significant increases in oxidative stress and apoptosis were observed with Etop/PpIX-PAMAM(G5) Ns upon 5 min of light illumination in comparison to treatment with either of the agents alone. In conclusion, simultaneous delivery and endo-lysosomal co-localization of Etop and PpIX by PAMAM(G5) Ns leads to a synergistic effect by phototherapy; in addition, the finding of antagonism without light illumination can be advantageous in lowering the dark toxicity and improving photo-selectivity.

Nanoparticles modified with vasculature-homing peptides for targeted cancer therapy and angiogenesis imaging

The two major challenges in cancer treatment include lack of early detection and ineffective therapies with various side effects. Angiogenesis is the key process in the growth, survival, invasiveness, and metastasis of many of cancerous tumors. Imaging of the angiogenesis could lead to diagnosis of tumors in the early stage and evaluation of the therapeutic responses. Angiogenic blood vessels express specific molecular markers different from normal blood vessels (in level or kind). This fact would make the tumor vasculature a suitable site to target therapeutics and imaging agents within the tumor. Surface modified nanoparticles using peptide ligands with high binding affinity to the vasculature markers, provide efficient delivery of therapeutic and imaging agents, while avoiding undesirable side effects. In this review, we discuss discoveries of various tumor targeting peptides useful for tumor angiogenesis imaging and targeted therapy with emphasis on surface modified nanomedicines using vasculature targeting peptides.

Emerging therapeutic opportunities for integrin inhibitors

Integrins are cell adhesion and signalling proteins crucial to a wide range of biological functions. Effective marketed treatments have successfully targeted integrins αIIbβ3, α4β7/α4β1 and αLβ2 for cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory bowel disease/multiple sclerosis and dry eye disease, respectively. Yet, clinical development of others, notably within the RGD-binding subfamily of αv integrins, including αvβ3, have faced significant challenges in the fields of cancer, ophthalmology and osteoporosis. New inhibitors of the related integrins αvβ6 and αvβ1 have recently come to the fore and are being investigated clinically for the treatment of fibrotic diseases, including idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. The design of integrin drugs may now be at a turning point, with opportunities to learn from previous clinical trials, to explore new modalities and to incorporate new findings in pharmacological and structural biology. This Review intertwines research from biological, clinical and medicinal chemistry disciplines to discuss historical and current RGD-binding integrin drug discovery, with an emphasis on small-molecule inhibitors of the αv integrins.

Integrins are key signalling molecules that are present on the surface of subsets of cells and are therefore good potential therapeutic targets. In this Review, Hatley and colleagues discuss the development of integrin inhibitors, particularly the challenges in developing inhibitors for integrins that contain an αv-subunit, and suggest how these challenges could be addressed.

A review of nanoparticle drug delivery systems responsive to endogenous breast cancer microenvironment

Breast cancer, as a malignant disease that seriously threatens women's health, urgently needs to be researched to develop effective and safe therapeutic drugs. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems (NDDS), provide a powerful means for drug targeting to the breast cancer, enhancing the bioavailability and reducing the adverse effects of anticancer drug. However, the breast cancer microenvironment together with heterogeneity of cancer, impedes the tumor targeting effect of NDDS. Breast cancer microenvironment, exerts endogenous stimuli, such as hypoxia, acidosis, and aberrant protease expression, shape a natural shelter for tumor growth, invasion and migration. On the basis of the ubiquitous of endogenous stimuli in the breast cancer microenvironment, researchers exploited them to design the stimuli-responsive NDDS, which response to endogenous stimulus, targeted release drug in breast cancer microenvironment. In this review, we highlighted the effect of the breast cancer microenvironment, summarized innovative NDDS responsive to the internal stimuli in the tumor microenvironment, including the material, the targeting groups, the loading drugs, targeting position and the function of stimuli-responsive nanoparticle drug delivery system. The limitations and potential applications of the stimuli-responsive nanoparticle drug delivery systems for breast cancer treatment were discussed to further the application.

Molecular Perspective of Nanoparticle Mediated Therapeutic Targeting in Breast Cancer: An Odyssey of Endoplasmic Reticulum Unfolded Protein Response (UPRER) and Beyond

Breast cancer (BC) is the second most frequent cause of death among women. Representing a complex and heterogeneous type of cancer, its occurrence is attributed by both genetic (gene mutations, e.g., BRCA1, BRCA2) and non-genetic (race, ethnicity, etc.) risk factors. The effectiveness of available treatment regimens (small molecules, cytotoxic agents, and inhibitors) decreased due to their poor penetration across biological barriers, limited targeting, and rapid body clearance along with their effect on normal resident cells of bone marrow, gastrointestinal tract, and hair follicles. This significantly reduced their clinical outcomes, which led to an unprecedented increase in the number of cases worldwide. Nanomedicine, a nano-formulation of therapeutics, emerged as a versatile delivering module for employment in achieving the effective and target specific delivery of pharmaceutical payloads. Adoption of nanotechnological approaches in delivering therapeutic molecules to target cells ensures not only reduced immune response and toxicity, but increases the stability of therapeutic entities in the systemic circulation that averts their degradation and as such increased extravasations and accumulation via enhanced permeation and the retention (EPR) effect in target tissues. Additionally, nanoparticle (NP)-induced ER stress, which enhances apoptosis and autophagy, has been utilized as a combative strategy in the treatment of cancerous cells. As nanoparticles-based avenues have been capitalized to achieve better efficacy of the new genera of therapeutics with enhanced specificity and safety, the present study is aimed at providing the fundamentals of BC, nanotechnological modules (organic, inorganic, and hybrid) employed in delivering different therapeutic molecules, and mechanistic insights of nano-ER stress induced apoptosis and autophagy with a perspective of exploring this avenue for use in the nano-toxicological studies. Furthermore, the current scenario of USA FDA approved nano-formulations and the future perspective of nanotechnological based interventions to overcome the existing challenges are also discussed.

Exploring the transformability of polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles and nanomaterial-biology interplay to facilitate tumor penetration, cellular uptake and intracellular targeting of anticancer drugs

BACKGROUND

Successful delivery of anticancer drugs to intracellular targets requires different properties of the nanocarrier to overcome multiple transport barriers. However, few nanocarrier systems, to date, possess such properties, despite knowledge about the biological fate of inorganic and polymeric nanocarriers in relation to their fixed size, shape and surface properties. Herein, a polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticle (PLN) system is described with size and shape transformability and its mechanisms of cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking are studied.

METHODS

Pharmaceutical lipids were screened for use in transformable PLN. Mechanisms of cellular uptake and the role of fatty acid-binding proteins in intracellular trafficking of PLN were investigated in breast cancer cells. Intra-tumoral penetration and retention of doxorubicin (DOX) were evaluated by confocal microscopy.

RESULTS

The lead PLNs showed time-dependent size reduction and shape change from spherical to spiky shape. This transformability of PLNs and lipid trafficking pathways facilitated intracellular transport of DOX-loaded PLN (DOX-PLN) into mitochondria and nuclei. DOX-PLN significantly increased DOX penetration and retention over free DOX or non-transformable liposomal DOX particles at 4 h post-intravenous administration.

CONCLUSION

Transformability of PLN and lipid-biology interplay can be exploited to design new nanocarriers for effective drug delivery to tumor cells and intracellular targets.

Local Targeting of Lung-Tumor-Associated Macrophages with Pulmonary Delivery of a CSF-1R Inhibitor for the Treatment of Breast Cancer Lung Metastases

The lungs are major sites of metastases for several cancer types, including breast cancer (BC). Prognosis and quality of life of BC patients that develop pulmonary metastases are negatively impacted. The development of strategies to slow the growth and relieve the symptoms of BC lung metastases (BCLM) is thus an important goal in the management of BC. However, systemically administered first line small molecule chemotherapeutics have poor pharmacokinetic profiles and biodistribution to the lungs and significant off-target toxicity, severely compromising their effectiveness. In this work, we propose the local delivery of add-on immunotherapy to the lungs to support first line chemotherapy treatment of advanced BC. In a syngeneic murine model of BCLM, we show that local pulmonary administration (p.a.) of PLX-3397 (PLX), a colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor inhibitor (CSF-1Ri), is capable of overcoming physiological barriers of the lung epithelium, penetrating the tumor microenvironment (TME), and decreasing phosphorylation of CSF-1 receptors, as shown by the Western blot of lung tumor nodules. That inhibition is accompanied by an overall decrease in the abundance of protumorigenic (M2-like) macrophages in the TME, with a concomitant increase in the amount of antitumor (M1-like) macrophages when compared to the vehicle-treated control. These effects with PLX (p.a.) were achieved using a much smaller dose (1 mg/kg, every other day) compared to the systemic doses typically used in preclinical studies (40-800 mg/kg/day). As an additive in combination with intravenous (i.v.) administration of paclitaxel (PTX), PLX (p.a.) leads to a decrease in tumor burden without additional toxicity. These results suggested that the proposed immunochemotherapy, with regional pulmonary delivery of PLX along with the i.v. standard of care chemotherapy, may lead to new opportunities to improve treatment, quality of life, and survival of patients with BCLM.

Utilization of Polymer-Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles for Targeted Anti-Cancer Therapy

Cancer represents one of the most dangerous diseases, with 1.8 million deaths worldwide. Despite remarkable advances in conventional therapies, these treatments are not effective to completely eradicate cancer. Nanotechnology offers potential cancer treatment based on formulations of several nanoparticles (NPs). Liposomes and polymeric nanoparticle are the most investigated and effective drug delivery systems (DDS) for cancer treatment. Liposomes represent potential DDS due to their distinct properties, including high-drug entrapment efficacy, biocompatibility, low cost, and scalability. However, their use is restricted by susceptibility to lipid peroxidation, instability, burst release of drugs, and the limited surface modification. Similarly, polymeric nanoparticles show several chemical modifications with polymers, good stability, and controlled release, but their drawbacks for biological applications include limited drug loading, polymer toxicity, and difficulties in scaling up. Therefore, polymeric nanoparticles and liposomes are combined to form polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLHNPs), with the positive attributes of both components such as high biocompatibility and stability, improved drug payload, controlled drug release, longer circulation time, and superior in vivo efficacy. In this review, we have focused on the prominent strategies used to develop tumor targeting PLHNPs and discuss their advantages and unique properties contributing to an ideal DDS.

Nanomedicine to target multidrug resistant tumors

Nanomedicine employs nanotechnologies to develop innovative applications, and more specifically nano-objects in the field of human health, through exploitation of the physical, chemical and biological properties of materials at the nanoscale. The use of nanovehicles capable of transporting and releasing the active therapeutic payload into target cells, particularly in the case of cancer or inflammatory diseases, can also enhance diagnosis. Therefore, nanomedicines improve the benefit/risk ratio of drugs by increasing their bioavailability, selectivity, and efficacy in the target tissue, while reducing the necessary doses and hence diminishing untoward toxicity to healthy tissues. Overcoming multidrug resistance (MDR) to antitumor agents is a central goal of cancer research and therapeutics, making it possible to treat these diseases more accurately and effectively. The adaptability of nanomedicines e.g. modulation of their components, surface functionalization, encapsulation of various active therapeutics as well as the possibility of combining several treatments using a single nanoparticle platform, are characteristics which are perfectly poised to address classical chemoresistance, a major obstacle towards curative cancer therapy. In this review, we discuss an assortment of nanomedicines along with those that should be developed in order to surmount cancer MDR; these include exosomes, natural compounds, lipid nanocapsules, prodrug self-assemblies, and gold nanoparticles.

Ferulic Acid-NLC with Lavandula Essential Oil: A Possible Strategy for Wound-Healing?

Nowadays, an increasing interest in combinatorial drug delivery systems is emerging, highlighting the possibility of exploiting essential oils (EO) for topical applications. This work aimed at developing nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) for the combined delivery of ferulic acid and Lavandula EO, whose beneficial effects in wound-healing processes have been widely reported. Homogeneous (polydispersity index, PDI < 0.2) nanoparticles with a small size (<150 nm) and a high encapsulation efficiency (>85%) were obtained. The co-presence of ferulic acid and Lavandula EO, as compared to synthetic isopropyl myristate-based NLC, increased nanoparticles’ stability, due to higher ordering chains, as confirmed by morphological and physicochemical studies. An enhanced cytocompatibility was observed when combining ferulic acid and Lavandula EO, as confirmed by in vitro studies on fibroblasts. Furthermore, the combined delivery of ferulic acid and Lavandula EO significantly promoted cell migration with higher effectiveness in respect to the free drug solution and the carrier without the EO. Taken all together, our results suggest a potential combined effect of the antioxidant ferulic acid and Lavandula EO co-delivered in lipid nanoparticles in promoting cell proliferation and migration, representing a promising strategy in the treatment of wounds.

Recent Advancements of Nanomedicine towards Antiangiogenic Therapy in Cancer

Angiogenesis is a process of generation of de-novo blood vessels from already existing vasculature. It has a crucial role in different physiological process including wound healing, embryonic development, and tumor growth. The methods by which therapeutic drugs inhibit tumor angiogenesis are termed as anti-angiogenesis cancer therapy. Developments of angiogenic inhibiting drugs have various limitations causing a barrier for successful treatment of cancer, where angiogenesis plays an important role. In this context, investigators developed novel strategies using nanotechnological approaches that have demonstrated inherent antiangiogenic properties or used for the delivery of antiangiogenic agents in a targeted manner. In this present article, we decisively highlight the recent developments of various nanoparticles (NPs) including liposomes, lipid NPs, protein NPs, polymer NPs, inorganic NPs, viral and bio-inspired NPs for potential application in antiangiogenic cancer therapy. Additionally, the clinical perspectives, challenges of nanomedicine, and future perspectives are briefly analyzed.

Nanomedicine in treatment of breast cancer - A challenge to conventional therapy

Amongst the various types of cancer, breast cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease and known as the leading cause of death among women globally. The extensive interdisciplinary investigation in nanotechnology and cancer biomedical research has been evolved over the years for its effective treatment. However, the advent of chemotherapeutic resistance in breast cancer is one of the major confront researchers are facing in achieving successful chemotherapy. Research in the area of cancer nanotechnology over the years have now been revolutionized through the development of smart polymers, lipids, inorganic materials and eventually their surface-engineering with targeting ligands. Moreover, nanotechnology further extended and brings in the notice the new theranostic approach which combining the therapy and imaging simultaneously. Currently, research is being envisaged in the area of novel nano-pharmaceutical design viz. liposome, nanotubes, polymer lipid hybrid system, which focuses to make the chemotherapy curative and long-lasting. In this review, we aimed to discuss the recent advancement of different surface-engineered/targeted nanomedicines that improved the drug efficacy in breast cancer.

Recent advances in nanotheranostics for triple negative breast cancer treatment

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most complex and aggressive type of breast cancer encountered world widely in women. Absence of hormonal receptors on breast cancer cells necessitates the chemotherapy as the only treatment regime. High propensity to metastasize and relapse in addition to poor prognosis and survival motivated the oncologist, nano-medical scientist to develop novel and efficient nanotherapies to solve such a big TNBC challenge. Recently, the focus for enhanced availability, targeted cellular uptake with minimal toxicity is achieved by nano-carriers. These smart nano-carriers carrying all the necessary arsenals (drugs, tracking probe, and ligand) designed in such a way that specifically targets the TNBC cells at site. Articulating the targeted delivery system with multifunctional molecules for high specificity, tracking, diagnosis, and treatment emerged as theranostic approach. In this review, in addition to classical treatment modalities, recent advances in nanotheranostics for early and effective diagnostic and treatment is discussed. This review highlighted the recently FDA approved immunotherapy and all the ongoing clinical trials for TNBC, in addition to nanoparticle assisted immunotherapy. Futuristic but realistic advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning not only improve early diagnosis but also assist clinicians for their workup in TNBC. The novel concept of Nanoparticles induced endothelial leakiness (NanoEL) as a way of tumor invasion is also discussed in addition to classical EPR effect. This review intends to provide basic insight and understanding of the novel nano-therapeutic modalities in TNBC diagnosis and treatment and to sensitize the readers for continue designing the novel nanomedicine. This is the first time that designing nanoparticles with stoichiometric definable number of antibodies per nanoparticle now represents the next level of precision by design in nanomedicine.

Multitargeted Nanoparticles Deliver Synergistic Drugs across the Blood-Brain Barrier to Brain Metastases of Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells and Tumor-Associated Macrophages

Patients with brain metastases of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) have a poor prognosis owing to the lack of targeted therapies, the aggressive nature of TNBC, and the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) that blocks penetration of most drugs. Additionally, infiltration of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) promotes tumor progression. Here, a terpolymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticle (TPLN) system is designed with multiple targeting moieties to first undergo synchronized BBB crossing and then actively target TNBC cells and TAMs in microlesions of brain metastases. In vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate that covalently bound polysorbate 80 in the terpolymer enables the low-density lipoprotein receptor-mediated BBB crossing and TAM-targetability of the TPLN. Conjugation of cyclic internalizing peptide (iRGD) enhances cellular uptake, cytotoxicity, and drug delivery to brain metastases of integrin-overexpressing TNBC cells. iRGD-TPLN with coloaded doxorubicin (DOX) and mitomycin C (MMC) (iRGD-DMTPLN) exhibits higher efficacy in reducing metastatic burden and TAMs than nontargeted DMTPLN or a free DOX/MMC combination. iRGD-DMTPLN treatment reduces metastatic burden by 6-fold and 19-fold and increases host median survival by 1.3-fold and 1.6-fold compared to DMTPLN or free DOX/MMC treatments, respectively. These findings suggest that iRGD-DMTPLN is a promising multitargeted drug delivery system for the treatment of integrin-overexpressing brain metastases of TNBC.

A platinum(iv) prodrug to defeat breast cancer through disrupting vasculature and inhibiting metastasis

A Pt^IV prodrug bearing a vascular disrupting agent demonstrates antiangiogenic and antimetastatic potentialities against metastatic triple-negative breast cancer cells.

In Situ Proapoptotic Peptide-Generating Rapeseed Protein-Based Nanocomplexes Synergize Chemotherapy for Cathepsin-B Overexpressing Breast Cancer

Intracellular activation of nanomaterials within cancer cells presents a powerful means to enhance anticancer specificity and efficacy. In light of upregulated lysosomal protease cathepsin-B (CathB) in many types of invasive cancer cells, herein, we exploit CathB-catalyzed biodegradation of acetylated rapeseed protein isolate (ARPI) to design polymer-drug nanocomplexes that can produce proapoptotic peptides in situ and synergize chemotherapy. ARPI forms nanocomplexes with chitosan (CS) and anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) [DOX-ARPI/CS nanoparticles (NPs)] by ionic self-assembly. The dual acidic pH- and CathB-responsive properties of the nanocomplexes and CathB-catalyzed biodegradation of ARPI enable efficient lysosomal escape and nuclei trafficking of released DOX, resulting in elevated cytotoxicity in CathB-overexpressing breast cancer cells. The ARPI-derived bioactive peptides exhibit synergistic anticancer effect with DOX by regulating pro- and antiapoptotic-relevant proteins ( p53, Bax, Bcl-2, pro-caspase-3) at mitochondria. In an orthotopic breast tumor model of CathB-overexpressing breast cancer, DOX-ARPI/CS NPs remarkably inhibit tumor growth, enhance tumor cell apoptosis and prolong host survival without eliciting any systemic toxicity. These results suggest that exploitation of multifunctional biomaterials to specifically produce anticancer agents inside cancer cells and trigger drug release to the subcellular target sites is a promising strategy for designing effective synergistic nanomedicines with minimal off-target toxicity.

Integrin-Mediated Delivery of Drugs and Nucleic Acids for Anti-Angiogenic Cancer Therapy: Current Landscape and Remaining Challenges

Angiogenesis, sprouting of new blood vessels from pre-existing vasculatures, plays a critical role in regulating tumor growth. Binding interactions between integrin, a heterodimeric transmembrane glycoprotein receptor, and its extracellular matrix (ECM) protein ligands govern the angiogenic potential of tumor endothelial cells. Integrin receptors are attractive targets in cancer therapy due to their overexpression on tumor endothelial cells, but not on quiescent blood vessels. These receptors are finding increasing applications in anti-angiogenic therapy via targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs and nucleic acids to tumor vasculatures. The current article attempts to provide a retrospective account of the past developments, highlight important contemporary contributions and unresolved set-backs of this emerging field.

Aluminium oxide nanoparticles induce structural changes in tau and cytotoxicity of the neuroblastoma cell line

The application of nanomaterials in the healthy system may induce some neurodegenerative diseases initiated by tau folding and neuronal cell death. Herein, aluminium oxide nanoparticles (Al₂O₃ NPs) were synthesized and characterized by XRD, TEM, DLS and zeta potential investigations. Afterwards, the interaction of Al₂O₃ NPs with tau protein was investigated by fluorescence and CD spectroscopic methods. The molecular docking and molecular dynamic were also run to explore the binding site and conformational changes of tau after interaction with Al₂O₃ cluster. Moreover, the MTT, LDH, caspase-9/-3 and flow cytometry assays were done to explore the Al₂O₃ NPs-induced cytotoxicity against SH-SY5Y cells. It was revealed that Al₂O₃ NPs bind to tau protein and form a static complex and fold the structure of tau toward a more packed structure. Molecular docking and molecular dynamic investigations revealed that NPs bind to the hydrophilic residues of the tau segments and promote some marginal structural folding of tau segment. The cellular assays displayed that Al₂O₃ NPs can elicit cell mortality through membrane leakage, caspase-9/-3 activations, and induction of both apoptosis and necrosis. This data may indicate that NPs can induce some adverse effects on the biological systems.

Importance of integrating nanotechnology with pharmacology and physiology for innovative drug delivery and therapy - an illustration with firsthand examples

Nanotechnology has been applied extensively in drug delivery to improve the therapeutic outcomes of various diseases. Tremendous efforts have been focused on the development of novel nanoparticles and delineation of the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles in relation to their biological fate and functions. However, in the design and evaluation of these nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems, the pharmacology of delivered drugs and the (patho-)physiology of the host have received less attention. In this review, we discuss important pharmacological mechanisms, physiological characteristics, and pathological factors that have been integrated into the design of nanotechnology-enabled drug delivery systems and therapies. Firsthand examples are presented to illustrate the principles and advantages of such integrative design strategies for cancer treatment by exploiting 1) intracellular synergistic interactions of drug-drug and drug-nanomaterial combinations to overcome multidrug-resistant cancer, 2) the blood flow direction of the circulatory system to maximize drug delivery to the tumor neovasculature and cells overexpressing integrin receptors for lung metastases, 3) endogenous lipoproteins to decorate nanocarriers and transport them across the blood-brain barrier for brain metastases, and 4) distinct pathological factors in the tumor microenvironment to develop pH- and oxidative stress-responsive hybrid manganese dioxide nanoparticles for enhanced radiotherapy. Regarding the application in diabetes management, a nanotechnology-enabled closed-loop insulin delivery system was devised to provide dynamic insulin release at a physiologically relevant time scale and glucose levels. These examples, together with other research results, suggest that utilization of the interplay of pharmacology, (patho-)physiology and nanotechnology is a facile approach to develop innovative drug delivery systems and therapies with high efficiency and translational potential.

Ratiometric drug delivery using non-liposomal nanocarriers as an approach to increase efficacy and safety of combination chemotherapy

The observation that different drug ratios of the same drug combination can lead to synergistic or antagonistic effects when tested against the same cancer cell line in vitro gave rise to a new trend, the ratiometric delivery. This strategy consists of co-encapsulating a specific synergistic ratio of a drug combination into a nanocarrier so that synergism observed in vitro will be faithfully translated to in vivo, optimizing combination therapy. In this review we focus on how to quantify synergism in vitro, followed by how this affected the evolution of nanocarriers culminating in the ratiometric delivery, and finally we summarize the results of the non-liposomal formulations that were built upon this concept.

Sample Extraction and Simultaneous Chromatographic Quantitation of Doxorubicin and Mitomycin C Following Drug Combination Delivery in Nanoparticles to Tumor-bearing Mice

Combination chemotherapy is frequently used in the clinic for cancer treatment; however, associated adverse effects to normal tissue may limit its therapeutic benefit. Nanoparticle-based drug combination has been shown to mitigate the problems encountered by free drug combination therapy. Our previous studies have shown that the combination of two anticancer drugs, doxorubicin (DOX) and mitomycin C (MMC), produced a synergistic effect against both murine and human breast cancer cells in vitro. DOX and MMC co-loaded polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles (DMPLN) bypassed various efflux transporter pumps that confer multidrug resistance and demonstrated enhanced efficacy in breast tumor models. Compared to conventional solution forms, such superior efficacy of DMPLN was attributed to the synchronized pharmacokinetics of DOX and MMC and increased intracellular drug bioavailability within tumor cells enabled by the nanocarrier PLN. To evaluate the pharmacokinetics and bio-distribution of co-administered DOX and MMC in both free solution and nanoparticle forms, a simple and efficient multi-drug analysis method using reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was developed. In contrast to previously reported methods that analyzed DOX or MMC individually in the plasma, this new HPLC method is able to simultaneously quantitate DOX, MMC and a major cardio-toxic DOX metabolite, doxorubicinol (DOXol), in various biological matrices (e.g., whole blood, breast tumor, and heart). A dual fluorescent and ultraviolet absorbent probe 4-methylumbelliferone (4-MU) was used as an internal standard (I.S.) for one-step detection of multiple drug analysis with different detection wavelengths. This method was successfully applied to determine the concentrations of DOX and MMC delivered by both nanoparticle and solution approaches in whole blood and various tissues in an orthotopic breast tumor murine model. The analytical method presented is a useful tool for pre-clinical analysis of nanoparticle-based delivery of drug combinations.