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Silva-Cayetano A, Fra-Bido S, Robert PA, Innocentin S, Burton AR, Watson EM, Lee JL, Webb LMC, Foster WS, McKenzie RCJ, Bignon A, Vanderleyden I, Alterauge D, Lemos JP, Carr EJ, Hill DL, Cinti I, Balabanian K, Baumjohann D, Espeli M, Meyer-Hermann M, Denton AE, Linterman MA. Spatial dysregulation of T follicular helper cells impairs vaccine responses in aging. Nat Immunol 2023; 24:1124-1137. [PMID: 37217705 PMCID: PMC10307630 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-023-01519-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The magnitude and quality of the germinal center (GC) response decline with age, resulting in poor vaccine-induced immunity in older individuals. A functional GC requires the co-ordination of multiple cell types across time and space, in particular across its two functionally distinct compartments: the light and dark zones. In aged mice, there is CXCR4-mediated mislocalization of T follicular helper (TFH) cells to the dark zone and a compressed network of follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) in the light zone. Here we show that TFH cell localization is critical for the quality of the antibody response and for the expansion of the FDC network upon immunization. The smaller GC and compressed FDC network in aged mice were corrected by provision of TFH cells that colocalize with FDCs using CXCR5. This demonstrates that the age-dependent defects in the GC response are reversible and shows that TFH cells support stromal cell responses to vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Philippe A Robert
- Department of Systems Immunology and Braunschweig Integrated Centre of Systems Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
- Translational Immunology, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Jia Le Lee
- Immunology Program, Babraham Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Dominik Alterauge
- Institute for Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Biomedical Center, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Julia P Lemos
- Université Paris Cité, Institut de Recherche Saint Louis, EMiLy, INSERM U1160, Paris, France
- OPALE Carnot Institute, The Organization for Partnerships in Leukemia, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institut de Myologie, Centre de Recherche en Myologie, Paris, France
| | - Edward J Carr
- Immunology Program, Babraham Institute, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Danika L Hill
- Immunology Program, Babraham Institute, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Immunology and Pathology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Isabella Cinti
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Karl Balabanian
- Université Paris Cité, Institut de Recherche Saint Louis, EMiLy, INSERM U1160, Paris, France
- OPALE Carnot Institute, The Organization for Partnerships in Leukemia, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Dirk Baumjohann
- Institute for Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Biomedical Center, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
- Medical Clinic III for Oncology, Hematology, Immuno-Oncology and Rheumatology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Marion Espeli
- Université Paris Cité, Institut de Recherche Saint Louis, EMiLy, INSERM U1160, Paris, France
- OPALE Carnot Institute, The Organization for Partnerships in Leukemia, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Michael Meyer-Hermann
- Department of Systems Immunology and Braunschweig Integrated Centre of Systems Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
- Institute for Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Alice E Denton
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Shutova MS, Boehncke WH. Mechanotransduction in Skin Inflammation. Cells 2022; 11:cells11132026. [PMID: 35805110 PMCID: PMC9265324 DOI: 10.3390/cells11132026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the process of mechanotransduction, the cells in the body perceive and interpret mechanical stimuli to maintain tissue homeostasis and respond to the environmental changes. Increasing evidence points towards dysregulated mechanotransduction as a pathologically relevant factor in human diseases, including inflammatory conditions. Skin is the organ that constantly undergoes considerable mechanical stresses, and the ability of mechanical factors to provoke inflammatory processes in the skin has long been known, with the Koebner phenomenon being an example. However, the molecular mechanisms and key factors linking mechanotransduction and cutaneous inflammation remain understudied. In this review, we outline the key players in the tissue’s mechanical homeostasis, the available data, and the gaps in our current understanding of their aberrant regulation in chronic cutaneous inflammation. We mainly focus on psoriasis as one of the most studied skin inflammatory diseases; we also discuss mechanotransduction in the context of skin fibrosis as a result of chronic inflammation. Even though the role of mechanotransduction in inflammation of the simple epithelia of internal organs is being actively studied, we conclude that the mechanoregulation in the stratified epidermis of the skin requires more attention in future translational research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria S. Shutova
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland;
- Department of Dermatology, Geneva University Hospitals, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
| | - Wolf-Henning Boehncke
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland;
- Department of Dermatology, Geneva University Hospitals, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
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3
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Dysregulation of leukocyte trafficking in ageing: Causal factors and possible corrective therapies. Pharmacol Res 2020; 163:105323. [PMID: 33276099 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.105323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Ageing is a universal biological phenomenon that is accompanied by the development of chronic, low-grade inflammation and remodelling of the immune system resulting in compromised immune function. In this review, we explore how the trafficking of innate and adaptive immune cells under homeostatic and inflammatory conditions is dysregulated in ageing. We particularly highlight the age-related changes in the expression of adhesion molecules and chemokine receptor/ligands, and the accumulation of senescent cells that drive modulated leukocyte trafficking. These age-related changes to leukocyte trafficking are multifactorial and specific to leukocyte subset, tissue, type of vascular bed, and inflammatory status. However, dysregulated leukocyte trafficking ultimately affects immune responses in older adults. We therefore go on to discuss approved drugs, including anti-integrins, anti-chemokines and statins, as well as novel therapeutics that may be used to target dysregulated leukocyte trafficking in ageing, improve immune responses and delay the onset of age-related diseases.
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4
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Expression and characterization of albumin fusion protein canine IFNγ-CSA in baculovirus-insect cell expression system. Protein Expr Purif 2019; 162:32-37. [PMID: 31100416 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2019.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2018] [Revised: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In this study, canine IFNγ was fused by a flexible linker with canine serum albumin to construct the fusion protein IFNγ-CSA for the purpose to design a long-acting canine IFNγ. The fusion protein was successfully expressed in baculovirus-infected Sf9 insect cells and was purified by salting-out and ion exchange chromatography. The IFNγ-CSA fusion possessed potent anti-viral assay against vesicular stomatitis virus in cultured cells. IFNγ-CSA was also stable at 37 °C up to 72 h compared with 8 h for IFNγ alone. In vivo pharmacokinetics demonstrated a significantly longer half-life for IFNγ-CSA (15.42 h) than for canine reIFNγ (1.51 h) in KM mice. These results indicate that IFNγ-CSA expression in the baculovirus system was successful and provide a promising long-acting cytokine for veterinary clinical applications.
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5
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Li B, Chen A, Zou S, Wu J, Wang H, Chen R, Luo M. Albumin fusion improves the pharmacokinetics and in vivo antitumor efficacy of canine interferon gamma. Int J Pharm 2019; 558:404-412. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.12.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Jia H, Guo Y, Song X, Shao C, Wu J, Ma J, Shi M, Miao Y, Li R, Wang D, Tian Z, Xiao W. Elimination of N-glycosylation by site mutation further prolongs the half-life of IFN-α/Fc fusion proteins expressed in Pichia pastoris. Microb Cell Fact 2016; 15:209. [PMID: 27927205 PMCID: PMC5142404 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-016-0601-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Interferon (IFN)-α has been commonly used as an antiviral drug worldwide; however, its short half-life in circulation due to its low molecular weight and sensitivity to proteases impacts its efficacy and patient compliance. Results In this study, we present an IgG1 Fc fusion strategy to improve the circulation half-life of IFN-α. Three different forms of IgG1 Fc fragments, including the wild type, aglycosylated homodimer and aglycosylated single chain, were each fused with IFN-α and designated as IFN-α/Fc-WT, IFN-α/Fc-MD, and IFN-α/Fc-SC, respectively. The recombinant proteins were expressed in Pichia pastoris and tested using antiviral and pharmacokinetic assays in comparison with the commercial pegylated-IFN-α (PEG-IFN-α). The in vitro study demonstrated that IFN-α/Fc-SC has the highest antiviral activity, while IFN-α/Fc-WT and IFN-α/Fc-MD exhibited antiviral activities comparable to that of PEG-IFN-α. The in vivo pharmacokinetic assay showed that both IFN-α/Fc-WT and IFN-α/Fc-MD have a longer half-life than PEG-IFN-α in SD rats, but IFN-α/Fc-SC has the shortest half-life among them. Importantly, the circulating half-life of 68.3 h for IFN-α/Fc-MD was significantly longer than those of 38.2 h for IFN-α/Fc-WT and 22.2 h for PEG-IFN-α. Conclusions The results demonstrate that the elimination of N-glycosylation by mutation of putative N-glycosylation site further prolongs the half-life of the IFN-α/Fc fusion protein and could present an alternative strategy for extending the half-life of low-molecular-weight proteins expressed by P. pastoris for in vivo studies as well as for future clinical applications. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-016-0601-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Jia
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Yugang Guo
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China. .,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China. .,Anhui Engineering Research Center of Recombinant Protein Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Advanced Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.
| | - Xiaoping Song
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical College, Hefei, China
| | - Changsheng Shao
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Anhui Engineering Research Center of Recombinant Protein Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Advanced Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Jing Wu
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Anhui Engineering Research Center of Recombinant Protein Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Advanced Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Jiajia Ma
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Anhui Engineering Research Center of Recombinant Protein Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Advanced Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Mingyang Shi
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Yuhui Miao
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Rui Li
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Dong Wang
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Zhigang Tian
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Anhui Engineering Research Center of Recombinant Protein Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Advanced Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Weihua Xiao
- The CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China. .,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs, Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China. .,Anhui Engineering Research Center of Recombinant Protein Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Advanced Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.
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7
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Newell-Litwa KA, Horwitz R, Lamers ML. Non-muscle myosin II in disease: mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities. Dis Model Mech 2015; 8:1495-515. [PMID: 26542704 PMCID: PMC4728321 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.022103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The actin motor protein non-muscle myosin II (NMII) acts as a master regulator of cell morphology, with a role in several essential cellular processes, including cell migration and post-synaptic dendritic spine plasticity in neurons. NMII also generates forces that alter biochemical signaling, by driving changes in interactions between actin-associated proteins that can ultimately regulate gene transcription. In addition to its roles in normal cellular physiology, NMII has recently emerged as a critical regulator of diverse, genetically complex diseases, including neuronal disorders, cancers and vascular disease. In the context of these disorders, NMII regulatory pathways can be directly mutated or indirectly altered by disease-causing mutations. NMII regulatory pathway genes are also increasingly found in disease-associated copy-number variants, particularly in neuronal disorders such as autism and schizophrenia. Furthermore, manipulation of NMII-mediated contractility regulates stem cell pluripotency and differentiation, thus highlighting the key role of NMII-based pharmaceuticals in the clinical success of stem cell therapies. In this Review, we discuss the emerging role of NMII activity and its regulation by kinases and microRNAs in the pathogenesis and prognosis of a diverse range of diseases, including neuronal disorders, cancer and vascular disease. We also address promising clinical applications and limitations of NMII-based inhibitors in the treatment of these diseases and the development of stem-cell-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen A Newell-Litwa
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Rick Horwitz
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Marcelo L Lamers
- Department of Morphological Sciences, Institute of Basic Health Science, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul 90610-010, Brazil
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8
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Richner JM, Gmyrek GB, Govero J, Tu Y, van der Windt GJW, Metcalf TU, Haddad EK, Textor J, Miller MJ, Diamond MS. Age-Dependent Cell Trafficking Defects in Draining Lymph Nodes Impair Adaptive Immunity and Control of West Nile Virus Infection. PLoS Pathog 2015. [PMID: 26204259 PMCID: PMC4512688 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Impaired immune responses in the elderly lead to reduced vaccine efficacy and increased susceptibility to viral infections. Although several groups have documented age-dependent defects in adaptive immune priming, the deficits that occur prior to antigen encounter remain largely unexplored. Herein, we identify novel mechanisms for compromised adaptive immunity that occurs with aging in the context of infection with West Nile virus (WNV), an encephalitic flavivirus that preferentially causes disease in the elderly. An impaired IgM and IgG response and enhanced vulnerability to WNV infection during aging was linked to delayed germinal center formation in the draining lymph node (DLN). Adoptive transfer studies and two-photon intravital microscopy revealed a decreased trafficking capacity of donor naïve CD4+ T cells from old mice, which manifested as impaired T cell diapedesis at high endothelial venules and reduced cell motility within DLN prior to antigen encounter. Furthermore, leukocyte accumulation in the DLN within the first few days of WNV infection or antigen-adjuvant administration was diminished more generally in old mice and associated with a second aging-related defect in local cytokine and chemokine production. Thus, age-dependent cell-intrinsic and environmental defects in the DLN result in delayed immune cell recruitment and antigen recognition. These deficits compromise priming of early adaptive immune responses and likely contribute to the susceptibility of old animals to acute WNV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin M. Richner
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Grzegorz B. Gmyrek
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Govero
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Yizheng Tu
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Gerritje J. W. van der Windt
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Talibah U. Metcalf
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida, United States of America
| | - Elias K. Haddad
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida, United States of America
| | - Johannes Textor
- Department of Theoretical Biology & Bioinformatics, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Mark J. Miller
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Michael S. Diamond
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Cané S, Ponnappan S, Ponnappan U. Altered regulation of CXCR4 expression during aging contributes to increased CXCL12-dependent chemotactic migration of CD4(+) T cells. Aging Cell 2012; 11:651-8. [PMID: 22568557 DOI: 10.1111/j.1474-9726.2012.00830.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokine-dependent migration of T lymphocytes assures recirculation of naïve T cells to secondary lymphoid organs and tissue-specific trafficking of memory-effector T cells. Previous studies carried out in rodents have demonstrated age-associated modulation of the expression of chemokine receptors such as CXCR4 and CCR5; however, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that regulate receptor expression and turnover in T cells, during advancing age in humans. Our recent results demonstrating increased chemotactic migration in response to CXCL12 in CD4(+) T cells obtained from the elderly, as compared to those from young donors, led us to hypothesize that increase in surface expression, because of altered endocytic regulation of CXCR4 on T cells during aging, might be directly responsible for increased migration toward CXCL12. Studies presented here demonstrate a significant increase in the surface expression of CXCR4 in CD4(+) T cells from elderly human donors, relative to those from the young. Additionally, CXCL12-mediated endocytosis of CXCR4 was differentially regulated during aging, which could be attributed to alterations in the ubiquitination of CXCR4. Thus, altered ubiquitination of CXCR4 may contribute to the increased surface expression and enhanced T-cell migration to chemotactic stimuli in the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Cané
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
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