Peli: a family of signal-responsive E3 ubiquitin ligases mediating TLR signaling and T-cell tolerance

Tumoural Pellino-1 expression and Pellino-1-expressive cytotoxic T-cells are associated with poor prognosis in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Pellino-1 plays a role in regulating inflammation and immune responses, and its effects on tumours are complex, with different outcomes reported in various studies. Additionally, the role of Pellino-1 in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) has not been thoroughly investigated. We aimed to examine the expression of Pellino-1 in tumour cells and tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) separately and identify the clinicopathological significance of Pellino-1 expression in DLBCL. We evaluated Pellino-1 expression in 104 patients with DLBCL. The density of specific cell types was quantitatively analysed using digital image analysis after a multiplex immunofluorescence staining with Pellino-1, CD20, CD8, FOXP3, and PD-1. Pellino-1 expression was mostly observed in CD20+ tumour cells and CD8+ TILs. The high CD8+/Pellino-1+ group was significantly associated with the non-GCB subtype and higher numbers of Foxp3+ T-cells. Patients with high CD20+/Pellino-1+ and high CD8+/Pellino-1+ cell densities had significantly shorter event-free survival (EFS) rates. The multivariate Cox-regression analysis showed that CD20+/Pellino-1+ cell density and CD8+/Pellino-1+ cell density were independent poor prognostic factors for EFS. Furthermore, patients with low densities of both CD20+/Pellino-1+ and CD8+/Pellino-1+ cells demonstrated a prognosis superior to that of patients with high Pellino-1+ cell densities, either alone or in combination. Additionally, the multivariate analysis demonstrated that the combination of CD20+/Pellino-1+ and CD8+/Pellino-1+ cell densities was an independent prognostic factor for EFS and overall survival. Pellino-1 expression was observed in both tumour cells and TILs, particularly in cytotoxic T-cells, and was correlated with poor outcomes in DLBCL. Thus, Pellino-1 might have an oncogenic effect on DLBCL and might be a potential target for improving cytotoxic T-cell activity.

TonEBP: A Key Transcription Factor in Microglia Following Intracerebral Hemorrhage Induced-Neuroinflammation

Transcription factors within microglia contribute to the inflammatory response following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Therefore, we employed bioinformatics screening to identify the potential transcription factor tonicity-responsive enhancer-binding protein (TonEBP) within microglia. Inflammatory stimuli can provoke an elevated expression of TonEBP in microglia. Nevertheless, the expression and function of microglial TonEBP in ICH-induced neuroinflammation remain ambiguous. In our recent research, we discovered that ICH instigated an increased TonEBP in microglia in both human and mouse peri-hematoma brain tissues. Furthermore, our results indicated that TonEBP knockdown mitigates lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation and the activation of NF-κB signaling in microglia. In order to more deeply comprehend the underlying molecular mechanisms of how TonEBP modulates the inflammatory response, we sequenced the transcriptomes of TonEBP-deficient cells and sought potential downstream target genes of TonEBP, such as Pellino-1 (PELI1). PELI has been previously reported to mediate nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling. Through the utilization of CUT & RUN, a dual-luciferase reporter, and qPCR, we confirmed that TonEBP is the transcription factor of Peli1, binding to the Peli1 promoter. In summary, TonEBP may enhance the LPS-induced inflammation and activation of NF-κB signaling via PELI1.

Pellino Proteins in Viral Immunity and Pathogenesis

Pellino proteins are a family of evolutionarily conserved ubiquitin ligases involved in intracellular signaling in a wide range of cell types. They are essential for microbe detection and the initiation of innate and adaptive immune responses. Some viruses specifically target the Pellino proteins as part of their immune evasion strategies. Through studies of mouse models of viral infections in the central nervous system, heart, lungs, and skin, the Pellino proteins have been linked to both beneficial and detrimental immune responses. Only in recent years have some of the involved mechanisms been identified. The objective of this review is to highlight the many diverse aspects of viral immunity and pathogenesis that the Pellino proteins have been associated with, in order to promote further research into their functions. After a brief introduction to the cellular signaling mechanisms involving Pellino proteins, their physiological roles in the initiation of immune responses, pathogenesis through excess inflammation, immune regulation, and cell death are presented. Known viral immune evasion strategies are also described. Throughout, areas that require more in-depth investigation are identified. Future research into the functions of the Pellino protein family may reveal fundamental insights into how our immune system works. Such knowledge may be leveraged in the fight against viral infections and their sequala.

The Role of Post-Translational Modifications in Regulation of NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) induce NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and subsequent formation of active caspase-1 as well as the maturation of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and gasdermin D (GSDMD), mediating the occurrence of pyroptosis and inflammation. Aberrant NLRP3 inflammasome activation causes a variety of diseases. Therefore, the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway is a target for prevention and treatment of relative diseases. Recent studies have suggested that NLRP3 inflammasome activity is closely associated with its post-translational modifications (PTMs). This review focuses on PTMs of the components of the NLRP3 inflammasome and the resultant effects on regulation of its activity to provide references for the exploration of the mechanisms by which the NLRP3 inflammasome is activated and controlled.

Decreased Peli1 expression attenuates osteoarthritis by protecting chondrocytes and inhibiting M1-polarization of macrophages

AIMS

Pellino1 (Peli1) has been reported to regulate various inflammatory diseases. This study aims to explore the role of Peli1 in the occurrence and development of osteoarthritis (OA), so as to find new targets for the treatment of OA.

METHODS

After inhibiting Peli1 expression in chondrocytes with small interfering RNA (siRNA), interleukin (IL)-1β was used to simulate inflammation, and OA-related indicators such as synthesis, decomposition, inflammation, and apoptosis were detected. Toll-like receptor (TLR) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signalling pathway were detected. After inhibiting the expression of Peli1 in macrophages Raw 264.7 with siRNA and intervening with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the polarization index of macrophages was detected, and the supernatant of macrophage medium was extracted as conditioned medium to act on chondrocytes and detect the apoptosis index. The OA model of mice was established by destabilized medial meniscus (DMM) surgery, and adenovirus was injected into the knee cavity to reduce the expression of Peli1. The degree of cartilage destruction and synovitis were evaluated by haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, Safranin O/Fast Green staining, and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

In chondrocytes, knockdown of Peli1 produced anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects by targeting the TLR and NF-κB signalling pathways. We found that in macrophages, knockdown of Peli1 can inhibit M1-type polarization of macrophages. In addition, the corresponding conditioned culture medium of macrophages applied to chondrocytes can also produce an anti-apoptotic effect. During in vivo experiments, the results have also shown that knockdown Peli1 reduces cartilage destruction and synovial inflammation.

CONCLUSION

Knockdown of Peli1 has a therapeutic effect on OA, which therefore makes it a potential therapeutic target for OA.Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2023;12(2):121-132.

Regulatory T Cells Overexpressing Peli1 Show Better Efficacy in Repairing Ovarian Endocrine Function in Autoimmune Premature Ovarian Insufficiency

Regulatory T (Treg) cell dysfunction is involved in the pathogenesis of autoimmune premature ovarian insufficiency (POI). Adoptive transfer of Treg cells has been shown to be effective in the treatment of autoimmune POI in mice. However, the therapeutic effect of Treg cell therapy is limited because the phenotype and function of Treg cells is not properly maintained when they are reinfused in an inflammatory environment. Therefore, enhancing the function of Treg cells using genetic engineering is of great significance for improving the efficacy of Treg cells in the treatment of immune diseases. In this study, we investigated the role of the E3 ubiquitinated ligase Pellino 1 (Peli1) in the proliferation and immunosuppressive function of Treg cells and the therapeutic effect of Treg cells overexpressing Peli1 on autoimmune POI. The results showed that the overexpression of Peli1 promoted cell proliferation and enhanced the immunosuppressive function of Treg cells in vitro. After the adoptive transfer of Treg cells overexpressing Peli1 in autoimmune POI mice, the apoptosis rate of ovarian granulosa cells declined. The levels of the inflammatory inhibitors interleukin 10 and transforming growth factor-β as well as the ovarian hormone estradiol were elevated. The number of primordial, primary, secondary, and mature follicles was restored to a certain extent compared with those in control subjects. These results revealed that the adoptive transfer of Treg cells overexpressing Peli1 promoted its efficacy against zona pellucida protein 3 peptide-induced POI, which provides new insights into the treatment of autoimmune POI.

Palmitic Acid Promotes Lung Metastasis of Melanomas via the TLR4/TRIF-Peli1-pNF-κB Pathway

A high-fat diet plays an important role in aggravating cancers. Palmitic acid (PA) is one of the components of saturated fatty acids; it has been reported to promote tumor proliferation in melanomas, but the signal transduction pathway mediated by palmitic acid remains unclear. This study showed that palmitic acid can promote the lung metastasis of melanomas. Moreover, the interaction between palmitic acid and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was predicted by molecular docking. The experimental results proved that palmitic acid could promote the TLR4 and Toll/IL-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor-inducing IFN-β (TRIF) expression. The expression of Pellino1 (Peli1) and the phosphorylation of NF-kappa B (pNF-κB) were downregulated after the suppression of TLR4 and the silencing of Peli1 also inhibited the phosphorylation of NF-κB. Therefore, we concluded that palmitic acid promoted the lung metastasis of melanomas through the TLR4/TRIF-Peli1-pNF-κB pathway.

Bcl-6-dependent risk stratification by nuclear expression of Peli1 in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Background/Aim: Peli1 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase involving lymphomagenesis by lysine 63 ubiquitination-mediated stabilization of Bcl-6 with in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). Materials and Methods: We categorized nuclear expression of Peli1 according to Bcl-6 status by immunohistochemistry in DLBCL (n=100), and analyzed clinicopathologic association with prognosis. Results: We established Bcl-6/Peli1 risk model composed of high risk (Bcl-6+/Peli1+ or Bcl-6-/Peli1-; n=64) and low risk (Bcl-6+/Peli1- or Bcl-6-/Peli1+; n=36). High risk group had more frequent non-GCB subtype (83% vs 64%; p=0.033) and Bcl-6-negativity (69% vs 28%; p<0.001) than low risk group. Univariate survival analysis for progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) revealed Bcl-6/Peli1 risk group (p=0.026 and p=0.021) and other conventional variables including international prognostic index (IPI), stage, ECOG performance status, number of extranodal sites were significant prognostic factors, along with B symptoms for OS. In multivariate analysis for PFS, Bcl-6/Peli1 risk group (p=0.032; HR=3.29), IPI (p=0.013; HR=3.39) and ECOG PS (p=0.035; HR=3.08) were independent prognostic factors. In multivariate analysis for OS, Bcl-6/Peli1 risk group (p=0.048; HR=7.87) and IPI (p=0.001; HR=12.15) were associated with prognosis. Conclusions: DLBCL had distinctive risk groups according to pairs of nuclear Peli1 and Bcl-6 expression. These results suggest the potential role of Peli1 and Bcl-6 in risk assessment in DLBCL.

The role of TBK1 in cancer pathogenesis and anticancer immunity

The TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) is a serine/threonine kinase belonging to the non-canonical inhibitor of nuclear factor-κB (IκB) kinase (IKK) family. TBK1 can be activated by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), inflammatory cytokines, and oncogenic kinases, including activated K-RAS/N-RAS mutants. TBK1 primarily mediates IRF3/7 activation and NF-κB signaling to regulate inflammatory cytokine production and the activation of innate immunity. TBK1 is also involved in the regulation of several other cellular activities, including autophagy, mitochondrial metabolism, and cellular proliferation. Although TBK1 mutations have not been reported in human cancers, aberrant TBK1 activation has been implicated in the oncogenesis of several types of cancer, including leukemia and solid tumors with KRAS-activating mutations. As such, TBK1 has been proposed to be a feasible target for pharmacological treatment of these types of cancer. Studies suggest that TBK1 inhibition suppresses cancer development not only by directly suppressing the proliferation and survival of cancer cells but also by activating antitumor T-cell immunity. Several small molecule inhibitors of TBK1 have been identified and interrogated. However, to this point, only momelotinib (MMB)/CYT387 has been evaluated as a cancer therapy in clinical trials, while amlexanox (AMX) has been evaluated clinically for treatment of type II diabetes, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and obesity. In this review, we summarize advances in research into TBK1 signaling pathways and regulation, as well as recent studies on TBK1 in cancer pathogenesis. We also discuss the potential molecular mechanisms of targeting TBK1 for cancer treatment. We hope that our effort can help to stimulate the development of novel strategies for targeting TBK1 signaling in future approaches to cancer therapy.

Peli1 facilitates NLRP3 inflammasome activation by mediating ASC ubiquitination

Inflammasomes are crucial for innate immunity against infections and, when deregulated, also contribute to inflammatory diseases. Here, we identify a critical function of the E3 ubiquitin ligase Peli1 in regulating the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Peli1 deficiency impairs induction of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) secretion by different NLRP3 inducers, but not by inducers of the Aim2, NLRP1, and NLRC4 inflammasomes. Peli1-deficient mice have alleviated peritonitis induction by alum and display increased resistance to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) endotoxin shock, coupled with decreased serum concentration of IL-1β. Peli1 is required for NLRP3-induced caspase-1 activation and IL-1β maturation. Mechanistically, Peli1 conjugates K63 ubiquitin chain to lysine 55 of the inflammasome adaptor apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC), which in turn facilitates ASC/NLRP3 interaction and ASC oligomerization, thereby contributing to inflammasome activation. Peli1 deficiency impairs the ubiquitination of ASC and inhibits inflammasome activation. Our findings establish Peli1 as an important inflammasome regulator and suggest a mechanism by which Peli1 mediates inflammatory responses.

Innate immune response analysis in COVID-19 and kawasaki disease reveals MIS-C predictors

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

The association between dysregulated innate immune responses seen in Kawasaki disease (KD) with predisposition to Kawasaki-like multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) remains unclear. We aimed to compare the innate immunity transcriptome signature between COVID-19 and KD, and to analyze the interactions of these molecules with genes known to predispose to KD.

METHODS

Transcriptome datasets of COVID-19 and KD cohorts (E-MTAB-9357, GSE-63881, GSE-68004) were downloaded from ArrayExpress for innate immune response analyses. Network analysis was used to determine enriched pathways of interactions.

RESULTS

Upregulations of IRAK4, IFI16, STING, STAT3, PYCARD, CASP1, IFNAR1 and CD14 genes were observed in blood cells of acute SARS-CoV-2 infections with moderate severity. In the same patient group, increased expressions of TLR2, TLR7, IRF3, and CD36 were also noted in blood drawn a few days after COVID-19 diagnosis. Elevated blood PYCARD level was associated with severe COVID-19 in adults. Similar gene expression signature except differences in TLR8, NLRP3, STING and IRF3 levels was detected in KD samples. Network analysis on innate immune genes and genes associated with KD susceptibility identified enriched pathways of interactions. Furthermore, higher expression levels of KD susceptibility genes HLA-DOB, PELI1 and FCGR2A correlated with COVID-19 of different severities.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that most enriched innate immune response pathways were shared between transcriptomes of KD and COVID-19 with moderate severity. Genetic polymorphisms associated with innate immune dysregulation and KD susceptibility, together with variants in STING and STAT3, might predict COVID-19 severity and potentially susceptibility to COVID-19 related MIS-C.

The E3 ubiquitin ligase Peli1 regulates the metabolic actions of mTORC1 to suppress antitumor T cell responses

Metabolic fitness of T cells is crucial for immune responses against infections and tumorigenesis. Both the T cell receptor (TCR) signal and environmental cues contribute to the induction of T cell metabolic reprogramming, but the underlying mechanism is incompletely understood. Here, we identified the E3 ubiquitin ligase Peli1 as an important regulator of T cell metabolism and antitumor immunity. Peli1 ablation profoundly promotes tumor rejection, associated with increased tumor-infiltrating CD4 and CD8 T cells. The Peli1-deficient T cells display markedly stronger metabolic activities, particularly glycolysis, than wild-type T cells. Peli1 controls the activation of a metabolic kinase, mTORC1, stimulated by both the TCR signal and growth factors, and this function of Peli1 is mediated through regulation of the mTORC1-inhibitory proteins, TSC1 and TSC2. Peli1 mediates non-degradative ubiquitination of TSC1, thereby promoting TSC1-TSC2 dimerization and TSC2 stabilization. These results establish Peli1 as a novel regulator of mTORC1 and downstream mTORC1-mediated actions on T cell metabolism and antitumor immunity.

Inflammasomes and Childhood Autoimmune Diseases: A Review of Current Knowledge

Inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes capable of sensing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and cellular perturbations. Upon stimulation, the inflammasomes activate the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 and induce gasdermin D-mediated pyroptosis. Dysregulated inflammasome signaling could lead to hyperinflammation in response to environmental triggers, thus contributing to the pathogenesis of childhood autoimmune/autoinflammatory diseases. In this review, we group childhood rheumatic diseases into the autoinflammation to autoimmunity spectrum and discuss about the involvement of inflammasomes in disease mechanisms. Genetic mutations in inflammasome components cause monogenic autoinflammatory diseases, while inflammasome-related genetic variants have been implicated in polygenic childhood rheumatic diseases. We highlight the reported associations of inflammasome signaling-related genetic polymorphisms/protein levels with pediatric autoimmune disease susceptibility and disease course. Furthermore, we discuss about the use of IL-1 receptor antagonist as an adjunctive therapy in several childhood autoimmune diseases, including macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) and multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) related to COVID-19. A comprehensive multi-cohort comparison on inflammasome gene expression profile in different pediatric rheumatic diseases is needed to identify patient subsets that might benefit from the adjunctive therapy of IL-1β inhibitors.

Identification of MTHFD2 as a novel prognosis biomarker in esophageal carcinoma patients based on transcriptomic data and methylation profiling

DNA methylation is an important epigenetic regulatory mechanism in esophageal carcinoma (EC) and is associated with genomic instability and carcinogenesis. In the present study, we aimed to identify tumor biomarkers for predicting prognosis of EC patients.We downloaded mRNA expression profiles and DNA methylation profiles associated with EC from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Differentially expressed and differentially methylated genes between tumor tissues and adjacent normal tissue samples were identified. Functional enrichment analyses were performed, followed by the construction of protein-protein interaction networks. Data were validated based on methylation profiles from The Cancer Genome Atlas. Candidate genes were further verified according to survival analysis and Cox regression analysis.We uncovered multiple genes with differential expression or methylation in tumor samples compared with normal samples. After taking the intersection of 3 differential gene sets, we obtained a total of 232 overlapping genes. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that these genes are related to pathways such as "glutathione metabolism," "p53 signaling pathway," and "focal adhesion." Furthermore, 8 hub genes with inversed expression and methylation correlation were identified as candidate genes. The abnormal expression levels of MSN, PELI1, and MTHFD2 were correlated with overall survival times in EC patients (P < .05). Only MTHFD2 was significantly associated with a pathologic stage according to univariate analysis (P = .037) and multivariate analysis (P = .043).Our study identified several novel EC biomarkers with prognostic value by integrated analysis of transcriptomic data and methylation profiles. MTHFD2 could serve as an independent biomarker for predicting prognosis and pathological stages of EC.

Pellino1 promotes chronic inflammatory skin disease via keratinocyte hyperproliferation and induction of the T helper 17 response

Psoriasis is one of the most common immune-mediated chronic inflammatory skin diseases. However, little is known about the molecular mechanism underlying the immunological circuits that maintain innate and adaptive immune responses in established psoriasis. In this study, we found that the Pellino1 (Peli1) ubiquitin E3 ligase is activated by innate pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and is highly upregulated in human psoriatic skin lesions and murine psoriasis-like models. Increased Peli1 expression is strongly correlated with the immunopathogenesis of psoriasis by activating hyperproliferation of keratinocytes in the S and G2/M phases of the cell cycle and promoting chronic skin inflammation. Furthermore, Peli1-induced psoriasis-like lesions showed significant changes in the expression levels of several T helper 17 (Th17)-related cytokines, such as IL-17a, IL-21, IL-22, IL-23, and IL-24, indicating that overexpression of Peli1 resulted in the sequential engagement of the Th17 cell response. However, the overexpression of Peli1 in T cells was insufficient to trigger psoriasis, while T cells were indispensable for disease manifestation. In summary, our findings demonstrate that Peli1 is a critical cell cycle activator of innate immunity, which subsequently links Th17 cell immune responses to the psoriatic microenvironment.

An immune-regulating protein that mediates chronic inflammation in the skin offers a new therapeutic target for the autoimmune disorder psoriasis. A research team from South Korea led by Chang-Woo Lee from Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine in Suwon and Heounjeong Go from the University of Ulsan College of Medicine in Seoul have discovered that Pellino1, a protein known to modulate immune responses to pathogens, is also found in abundance in the skin lesions of people with psoriasis. Using mouse models, the researchers showed how Pellino1 induces the proliferation of certain skin cells and triggers an inflammatory state through the activation of small proteins and immune cells normally involved in defense against infection. Targeting strategy that inactivate Pellino1 could help blunt the inflammatory signaling in the skin that drives the development of psoriatic lesions.

The SCFβ-TrCP E3 Ubiquitin Ligase Regulates Immune Receptor Signaling by Targeting the Negative Regulatory Protein TIPE2

TNFAIP8-like 2 (TIPE2) is a negative regulator of immune receptor signaling that maintains immune homeostasis. Dysregulated TIPE2 expression has been observed in several types of human immunological disorders. However, how TIPE2 expression is regulated remains to be determined. We report in this study that the SCF^β-TrCP E3 ubiquitin ligase regulates TIPE2 protein abundance by targeting it for ubiquitination and subsequent degradation via the 26S proteasome. Silencing of either cullin-1 or β-TrCP1 resulted in increased levels of TIPE2 in immune cells. TAK1 phosphorylated the Ser³ in the noncanonical degron motif of TIPE2 to trigger its interaction with β-TrCP for subsequent ubiquitination and degradation. Importantly, the amount of TIPE2 protein in immune cells determined the strength of TLR 4-induced signaling and downstream gene expression. Thus, our study has uncovered a mechanism by which SCF^β-TrCP E3 ubiquitin ligase regulates TLR responses.

BAP31 regulates IRAK1-dependent neuroinflammation in microglia

BACKGROUND

Microglia, the mononuclear immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), are essential for the maintenance of CNS homeostasis. BAP31, a resident and ubiquitously expressed protein of the endoplasmic reticulum, serves as a sorting factor for its client proteins, mediating the subsequent export, retention, and degradation or survival. Recently, BAP31 has been defined as a regulatory molecule in the CNS, but the function of BAP31 in microglia has yet to be determined. In the present study, we investigated whether BAP31 is involved in the inflammatory response of microglia.

METHODS

This study used the BV2 cell line and BAP31 conditional knockdown mice generated via the Cre/LoxP system. A BAP31 knockdown experiment was performed to elucidate the role of BAP31 in the endogenous inflammatory cytokine production by microglial BV2 cells. A mouse model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cognitive impairment was established to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of BAP31 against neuroinflammation-induced memory deficits. Behavioral alterations were assessed with the open field test (OFT), Y maze, and Morris water maze. The activation of microglia in the hippocampus of mice was observed by immunohistochemistry. Western blot, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunofluorescence staining, and reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were used to clarify the mechanisms.

RESULTS

BAP31 deficiency upregulates LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokines in BV2 cells and mice by upregulating the protein level of IRAK1, which in turn increases the translocation and transcriptional activity of NF-κB p65 and c-Jun, and moreover, knockdown of IRAK1 or use of an IRAK1 inhibitor reverses these functions. In the cognitive impairment animal model, the BAP31 knockdown mice displayed increased severity in memory deficiency accompanied by an increased expression of proinflammatory factors in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that BAP31 may modulate inflammatory cytokines and cognitive impairment induced by neuroinflammation through IRAK1, which demonstrates that BAP31 plays an essential role in microglial inflammation and prevention of memory deficits caused by neuroinflammation.

Ubiquitin E3 Ligase Pellino-1 Inhibits IL-10-mediated M2c Polarization of Macrophages, Thereby Suppressing Tumor Growth

Pellino-1 is a ubiquitin (Ub) E3 ligase that plays a role in M1, but not M2a polarization of macrophages. However, it is unknown whether Pellino-1 regulates IL-10-mediated M2c polarization of macrophages. Here, we found that Pellino-1 attenuated tumor growth by inhibiting M2c polarization of macrophages. Upon IL-10 stimulation, Pellino-1-deificient bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) showed higher expression of M2c markers, but not M2a, and M2b markers than wild-type (WT) BMDMs, indicating that Pellino-1 inhibits M2c polarization of macrophages. Pellino-1-deficient BMDMs exhibited a defect in mitochondria respiration, but enhancement of glycolysis during M2c polarization. During M2c polarization of macrophages, Pellino-1 increased STAT1 phosphorylation via K63-linked ubiquitination of IL-1 receptor associated kinase 1 (IRAK1). Furthermore, Lysm-CrePellino-1 ^fl/fl mice showed enhancement of tumor growth via regulating M2c polarization of tumor-associated macrophages. These results demonstrate that Pellino-1 inhibits IL-10-induced M2c macrophage polarization via K63-linked ubiquitination of IRAK1 and activation of STAT1, thereby inhibiting tumor growth in vivo.

β-Arrestin-1 inhibits glucocorticoid receptor turnover and alters glucocorticoid signaling

Glucocorticoids are among the most widely used drugs to treat many autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Although much research has been focused on investigating glucocorticoid activity, it remains unclear how glucocorticoids regulate distinct processes in different cells. Glucocorticoids exert their effects through the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which, upon glucocorticoid binding, interacts with regulatory proteins, affecting its activity and function. These protein-protein interactions are necessary for the resolution of glucocorticoid-dependent physiological and pharmacological processes. In this study, we discovered a novel protein interaction between the glucocorticoid receptor and β-arrestin-1, a scaffold protein with a well-established role in G protein-coupled receptor signaling. Using co-immunoprecipitation and in situ proximity ligation assays in A549 cells, we observed that β-arrestin-1 and unliganded GR interact in the cytoplasm and that, following glucocorticoid binding, the protein complex is found in the nucleus. We show that siRNA-mediated β-arrestin-1 knockdown alters GR protein turnover by up-regulating the E3 ubiquitin ligase Pellino-1, which catalyzes GR ubiquitination and thereby marks the receptor for proteasomal degradation. The enhanced GR turnover observed in β-arrestin-1-deficient cells limits the duration of the glucocorticoid response on GR target genes. These results demonstrate that β-arrestin-1 is a crucial player for the stability of the glucocorticoid receptor. The GR/β-arrestin-1 interaction uncovered here may help unravel mechanisms that contribute to the cell type-specific activities of glucocorticoids.

Peli1 controls the survival of dopaminergic neurons through modulating microglia-mediated neuroinflammation

Chronic neuroinflammation is known to contributes to the toxicity of neurodegeneration of Parkinson’s disease (PD). However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms controlling inflammatory responses in the central nervous system remain poorly understood. Here we found that a E3 ubiquitin ligase Peli1 is dramatically induced only in the substantia nigra (SN) of the human and mouse PD brains. The ablation of Peli1 significantly suppressed LPS-induced production of neurotoxic mediators and proinflammatory cytokines in SN and in primary microglia, whereas Peli1 is dispensable for the inflammatory responses in astrocyte. Accordingly, Peli1 deficiency markedly inhibited neuron death induced by the conditioned medium from LPS-stimulated microglia. Mechanistical study suggested that Peli1 acts as a positive regulator of inflammatory response in microglia through activation of NF-κB and MAP kinase. Our results established Peli1 as a critical mediator in the regulation of microglial activation and neuroinflammation-induced death of dopaminergic neurons during PD pathogenesis, suggesting that targeting Peli1 may have therapeutic effect in neuroinflammation.

Immune Control by TRAF6-Mediated Pathways of Epithelial Cells in the EIME (Epithelial Immune Microenvironment)

In the protective responses of epithelial tissues, not only immune cells but also non-immune cells directly respond to external agents. Epithelial cells can be involved in the organization of immune responses through two phases. First, the exogenous harmful agents trigger the primary responses of the epithelial cells leading to various types of immune cell activation. Second, cytokines produced by the immune cells that are activated directly by the external agents and indirectly by the epithelial cell products elicit the secondary responses giving rise to further propagation of immune responses. TRAF6 is a ubiquitin E3 ligase, which intermediates between various types of receptors for exogenous agents or endogenous mediators and activation of subsequent transcriptional responses via NF-kappaB and MAPK pathways. TRAF6 ubiquitously participates in many protective responses in immune and non-immune cells. Particularly, epithelial TRAF6 has an essential role in the primary and secondary responses via driving type 17 response in psoriatic inflammation of the skin. Consistently, many psoriasis susceptibility genes encode the TRAF6 signaling players, such as ACT1 (TRAF3IP2), A20 (TNFAIP3), ABIN1 (TNIP1), IL-36Ra (IL36RN), IkappaBzeta (NFKBIZ), and CARD14. Herein, we describe the principal functions of TRAF6, especially in terms of positive and regulatory immune controls by interaction between immune cells and epithelial cells. In addition, we discuss how TRAF6 in the epithelial cells can organize the differentiation of immune responses and drive inflammatory loops in the epithelial immune microenvironment, which is termed EIME.

Poly IC pretreatment suppresses B cell-mediated lupus-like autoimmunity through induction of Peli1

Noncanonical NF-κB pathway is essential for the B cell activation and antibody production, which centralize the critical role of B cells in regulating the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). We have previously demonstrated that Pellino1 (Peli1) negatively regulates noncanonical NF-κB activation and lupus autoimmunity. Here, we showed that poly IC is a potent inducer of Peli1 protein in mouse splenic B cells in dose- and time-dependent manners, and poly IC-induced Peli1 protein dramatically suppressed the activation of noncanonical NF-κB pathway. In addition, poly IC-pretreated B cells failed to induce lupus-like disease in BM12 CD4+ T cell-immunized mice. Accordingly, the induction of antibody-producing plasma cells and germinal center B cells, as well as the production of autoantibodies were significantly impaired in immunized μMT mice that were transferred with poly IC-pretreated B cells. Our findings demonstrate that poly IC-induced Peli1 negatively regulates the noncanonical NF-κB pathway in the context of restraining the pathogenesis of lupus-like disease.

Increased survivability of ischemic skin flap tissue in Flk-1+/- mice by Pellino-1 intervention

OBJECTIVE

Reduced skin flap survival due to ischemia is a serious concern during reconstructive cosmetic surgery. The absence of VEGF and its receptors during ischemia may lead to flap failure. We identified Peli1, a 46-kDa protein, as a proangiogenic molecule and is directly regulated by VEGF. Therefore, we hypothesized that Peli1 acts downstream of Flk-1/VEGFR2 and aids in skin flap survival during ischemia.

METHODS

Scratch and matrigel assays were performed to observe cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation in vitro. Western blot analysis was carried out to detect the phosphorylation of Akt (p-Akt) and MAPKAPK2 (p-MK2) in HUVECs. The translational potential of Peli1 pretreatment in the rescue of skin flap tissue was studied in vivo using Flk-1^+/- mice. Animals underwent dorsal ischemic skin flap surgery, and the tissue was collected on day 12 for analysis.

RESULTS

Western blot analysis revealed a direct relationship between Peli1 and VEGF, as demonstrated by loss-of-function and gain-of-function studies. In addition, pretreatment with Ad.Peli1 restored the phosphorylation of Akt and MK2 and improved the migration potential of Flk-1-knockdown cells. Ad.Peli1 pretreatment salvaged the ischemic skin flap of Flk-1^+/- mice by increasing blood perfusion and reducing the inflammatory response and the extent of necrosis.

CONCLUSION

Our findings reveal that Peli1 is a proangiogenic molecule that acts downstream of VEGF-Flk-1 and restores angiogenesis and enhances skin flap survivability.

Cytosolic Pellino-1-Mediated K63-Linked Ubiquitination of IRF5 in M1 Macrophages Regulates Glucose Intolerance in Obesity

IRF5 is a signature transcription factor that induces M1 macrophage polarization. However, little is known regarding cytosolic proteins that induce IRF5 activation for M1 polarization. Here, we report the interaction between ubiquitin E3 ligase Pellino-1 and IRF5 in the cytoplasm, which increased nuclear translocation of IRF5 by K63-linked ubiquitination in human and mouse M1 macrophages. LPS and/or IFN-γ increased Pellino-1 expression, and M1 polarization was attenuated in Pellino-1-deficient macrophages in vitro and in vivo. Defective M1 polarization in Pellino-1-deficient macrophages improved glucose intolerance in mice fed a high-fat diet. Furthermore, macrophages in adipose tissues from obese humans exhibited increased Pellino-1 expression and IRF5 nuclear translocation compared with nonobese subjects, and these changes are associated with insulin resistance index. This study demonstrates that cytosolic Pellino-1-mediated K63-linked ubiquitination of IRF5 in M1 macrophages regulates glucose intolerance in obesity, suggesting a cytosolic mediator function of Pellino-1 in TLR4/IFN-γ receptor-IRF5 axis during M1 polarization.

Identification of a role for TRIM29 in the control of innate immunity in the respiratory tract

The respiratory tract is heavily populated with innate immune cells, but the mechanisms that control such cells are poorly defined. Here we found that the E3 ubiquitin ligase TRIM29 was a selective regulator of the activation of alveolar macrophages, the expression of type I interferons and the production of proinflammatory cytokines in the lungs. We found that deletion of TRIM29 enhanced macrophage production of type I interferons and protected mice from infection with influenza virus, while challenge of Trim29-/- mice with Haemophilus influenzae resulted in lethal lung inflammation due to massive production of proinflammatory cytokines by macrophages. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that TRIM29 inhibited interferon-regulatory factors and signaling via the transcription factor NF-κB by degrading the adaptor NEMO and that TRIM29 directly bound NEMO and subsequently induced its ubiquitination and proteolytic degradation. These data identify TRIM29 as a key negative regulator of alveolar macrophages and might have important clinical implications for local immunity and immunopathology.

The genetic background of inflammatory bowel disease: from correlation to causality

Recent studies have greatly improved our insight into the genetic background of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). New high-throughput technologies and large-scale international collaborations have contributed to the identification of 200 independent genetic risk loci for IBD. However, in most of these loci, it is unclear which gene conveys the risk for IBD. More importantly, it is unclear which variant within or near the gene is causal to the disease. Using targeted GWAS, imputation, resequencing of risk loci, and in silico fine-mapping of densely typed loci, several causal variants have been identified in IBD risk genes, and various pathological pathways have been uncovered. Current research in the field of IBD focuses on the effect of these causal variants on gene expression and protein function. However, more elements than only the genome must be taken into account to disentangle the multifactorial pathology of IBD. The genetic risk loci identified to date only explain a small part of genetic variance in disease risk. Currently, large multi-omics studies are incorporating factors ranging from the gut microbiome to the environment. In this review, we present the progress that has been made in IBD genetic research and stress the importance of studying causality to increase our understanding of the pathogenesis of IBD. We highlight important causal genetic variants in the candidate genes NOD2, ATG16L1, IRGM, IL23R, CARD9, RNF186, and PRDM1. We describe their downstream effects on protein function and their direct effects on the gut immune system. Furthermore, we discuss the future role of genetics in unravelling disease mechanisms in IBD. Copyright © 2016 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

PELI1 expression is correlated with MYC and BCL6 expression and associated with poor prognosis in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

PELI is a family of E3 ubiquitin ligases that regulate protein activity through a post-translational modification, ubiquitination. While PELI1 has been found to play a pivotal role in inflammatory processes through the activation of Toll-like receptor signaling and the NF-kB pathway, the role of PELI1 in oncogenesis has not been the subject of much investigation. We aimed to explore PELI1 expression in various malignant lymphomas and identify clinicopathologic significance. Immunohistochemistry for PELI1 was performed on a total of 502 cases, including 406 B-cell, 76 T or NK-cell, and 20 Hodgkin lymphomas. High expression of PELI1 was found in high-grade B-cell lymphoma cases such as diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, Burkitt lymphoma, and plasmablastic lymphoma, whereas low-grade B-cell lymphoma, T/NK-cell lymphoma, and Hodgkin lymphoma cases showed very low levels of expression. In vitro cell line studies, the results of western blot, and RT-PCR were concordant with those of the immunohistochemical results; RL7, Pfeiffer, SUDHL-2, DOHH2, and Ramos cell lines showed high levels of PELI1 protein and mRNA expression. In 182 diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, PELI1 expression was positively correlated with the expression of MYC, BCL6, BCL2, and MUM1 (Spearman's ρ=0.427, 0.507, 0.246, and 0.137, respectively; P<0.001, <0.001, 0.001, and 0.066, respectively). In diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, high expression of PELI1 was associated with frequent bone marrow involvement (P=0.013) and shorter relapse-free survival (P=0.002). Our results suggest that PELI1 might participate in B-cell maturation or oncogenic activation of aggressive B-cell lymphomas, both during and after germinal center stages.

Cereblon negatively regulates TLR4 signaling through the attenuation of ubiquitination of TRAF6

Cereblon (CRBN) is a substrate receptor protein for the CRL4A E3 ubiquitin ligase complex. In this study, we report on a new regulatory role of CRBN in TLR4 signaling. CRBN overexpression leads to suppression of NF-κB activation and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6 and IL-1β in response to TLR4 stimulation. Biochemical studies revealed interactions between CRBN and TAK1, and TRAF6 proteins. The interaction between CRBN and TAK1 did not affect the association of the TAB1 and TAB2 proteins, which have pivotal roles in the activation of TAK1, whereas the CRBN-TRAF6 interaction critically affected ubiquitination of TRAF6 and TAB2. Binding mapping results revealed that CRBN interacts with the Zinc finger domain of TRAF6, which contains the ubiquitination site of TRAF6, leading to attenuation of ubiquitination of TRAF6 and TAB2. Functional studies revealed that CRBN-knockdown THP-1 cells show enhanced NF-κB activation and p65- or p50-DNA binding activities, leading to up-regulation of NF-κB-dependent gene expression and increased pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in response to TLR4 stimulation. Furthermore, Crbn^−/− mice exhibit decreased survival in response to LPS challenge, accompanied with marked enhancement of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-6. Taken together, our data demonstrate that CRBN negatively regulates TLR4 signaling via attenuation of TRAF6 and TAB2 ubiquitination.

Endotoxin Tolerance Inhibits Degradation of Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor-Associated Factor 3 by Suppressing Pellino 1 Expression and the K48 Ubiquitin Ligase Activity of Cellular Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein 2

Pellino 1 positively regulates Toll-like receptor 4 signaling by regulating tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 3 (TRAF3) degradation and is suppressed with the induction of endotoxin tolerance. However, the role of TRAF3 in endotoxin tolerance is largely unknown. In this study, we found that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation decreased TARF3 protein expression in mouse Kupffer cells (KCs) and liver tissues, whereas endotoxin tolerization abrogated this effect. Degradative TRAF3 K48-linked ubiquitination and the cytoplasmic translocation of the MYD88-associated multiprotein complex were significantly inhibited in tolerized KCs, which led to markedly impaired activation of MYD88-dependent JNK and p38 and downregulation of inflammatory cytokines. TRAF3 ablation failed to induce a fully endotoxin-tolerant state in RAW264.7 cells. Pellino 1 knockdown in Raw264.7 cells did not impair induction of cIAP2 in response to LPS but inhibited the K63-linked ubiquitination of cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein 2 (cIAP2) and K48-linked ubiquitination of TRAF3 protein. We also found upregulation of Pellino 1 and downregulation of TRAF3 in liver tissues of patients with cholangitis. Our findings reveal a novel mechanism that endotoxin tolerance reprograms mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling by suppressing Pellino 1-mediated K63-linked ubiquitination of cIAP2, K48-linked ubiquitination, and degradation of TRAF3.

E3 ubiquitin ligases Pellinos as regulators of pattern recognition receptor signaling and immune responses

Pellinos are a family of E3 ubiquitin ligases discovered for their role in catalyzing K63-linked polyubiquitination of Pelle, an interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor-associated kinase homolog in the Drosophila Toll pathway. Subsequent studies have revealed the central and non-redundant roles of mammalian Pellino-1, Pellino-2, and Pelino-3 in signaling pathways emanating from IL-1 receptors, Toll-like receptors, NOD-like receptors, T- and B-cell receptors. While Pellinos ability to interact with many signaling intermediates suggested their scaffolding roles, recent findings in mice expressing ligase-inactive Pellinos demonstrated the importance of Pellino ubiquitin ligase activity. Cell-specific functions of Pellinos have emerged, e.g. Pellino-1 being a negative regulator in T lymphocytes and a positive regulator in myeloid cells, and details of molecular regulation of receptor signaling by various members of the Pellino family have been revealed. In this review, we summarize current information about Pellino-mediated regulation of signaling by pattern recognition receptors, T-cell and B-cell receptors and tumor necrosis factor receptors, and discuss Pellinos roles in sepsis and infectious diseases, as well as in autoimmune, inflammatory, and allergic disorders. We also provide our perspective on the potential of targeting Pellinos with peptide- or small molecule-based drug compounds as a new therapeutic approach for septic shock and autoimmune pathologies.

The ORF3 Protein of Genotype 1 Hepatitis E Virus Suppresses TLR3-induced NF-κB Signaling via TRADD and RIP1

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotype 1 infection is common and can emerge as outbreaks in developing areas, thus posing a threat to public health. However, due to the absence of feasible animal models, the mechanism of HE pathogenesis remains obscure. The HEV pathogenic mechanism has been suggested to be mediated by the immune system and not by direct viral duplication. We firstly discovered that the open reading frame 3 (ORF3) protein of genotype 1 HEV downregulates TLR3-mediated NF-κB signaling in Human A549 Lung Epithelial Cells (A549 cells) which were exposed to different TLR agonists associated with viral nucleic acids. Additionally, we identified the P2 domain of ORF3 as being responsible for this inhibition. Intriguingly, tumor necrosis factor receptor 1-associated death domain protein (TRADD) expression and receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIP1) K63-ubiquitination were reduced in the presence of both ORF3 and Poly(I:C). Furthermore, we found that Lys377 of RIP1 acts as the functional ubiquitination site for ORF3-associated inhibition. Overall, we found that ORF3 protein downregulates TLR3-mediated NF-κB signaling via TRADD and RIP1. Our findings provide a new perspective on the cellular response in HEV infection and expand our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of HEV pathogenesis in innate immunity.

Ubiquitin signaling in immune responses

Ubiquitination has emerged as a crucial mechanism that regulates signal transduction in diverse biological processes, including different aspects of immune functions. Ubiquitination regulates pattern-recognition receptor signaling that mediates both innate immune responses and dendritic cell maturation required for initiation of adaptive immune responses. Ubiquitination also regulates the development, activation, and differentiation of T cells, thereby maintaining efficient adaptive immune responses to pathogens and immunological tolerance to self-tissues. Like phosphorylation, ubiquitination is a reversible reaction tightly controlled by the opposing actions of ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitinases. Deregulated ubiquitination events are associated with immunological disorders, including autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

Association of PELI1 polymorphisms in systemic lupus erythematosus susceptibility in a Chinese population

Objective

Studies in animal models have indicated that Pellino 1 is involved in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The current study was designed to determine whether PELI1 confers genetic susceptibility to SLE in humans, as assessed in a Chinese Han population.

Methods

Blood samples were drawn from patients diagnosed with SLE and healthy volunteers. Three single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci with a minor allele frequency of at least 0.05 were chosen to evaluate the correlation between PELI1 genotype and the incidence of SLE.

Results

There was a significant difference in the frequency distribution of the rs329497 allele between the SLE patients and the healthy controls (A vs. G; Bonferroni corrected p = 0.036, odds ratio = 0.75, 95% confidence interval = 0.60–0.94). No differences in the genotype and allele frequencies of other SNP loci were observed between the two groups. Furthermore, the alleles and genotypes of the three SNPs were not associated with lupus nephritis.

Conclusion

In the Chinese Han population, PELI1 SNPs may be associated with SLE susceptibility.

Pellino1-mediated TGF-β1 synthesis contributes to mechanical stress induced cardiac fibroblast activation

Activation of cardiac fibroblasts is a key event in the progression of cardiac fibrosis that leads to heart failure. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying mechanical stress-induced cardiac fibroblast activation are complex and poorly understood. This study demonstrates that Pellino1, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, was activated in vivo in pressure overloaded rat hearts and in cultured neonatal rat cardiac fibroblasts (NRCFs) exposed to mechanical stretch in vitro. Suppression of the expression and activity of Pellino1 by adenovirus-mediated delivery of shPellino1 (adv-shpeli1) attenuated pressure overload-induced cardiac dysfunction and cardiac hypertrophy and decreased cardiac fibrosis in rat hearts. Transfection of adv-shpeli1 also significantly attenuated mechanical stress-induced proliferation, differentiation and collagen synthesis in NRCFs. Pellino1 silencing also abrogated mechanical stretch-induced polyubiquitination of tumor necrosis factor-alpha receptor association factor-6 (TRAF6) and receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1) and consequently decreased the DNA binding activity of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in NRCFs. In addition, Pellino1 silencing prevented stretch-induced activation of p38 and activator protein 1 (AP-1) binding activity in NRCFs. Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and luciferase reporter assays showed that Pellino1 silencing prevented the binding of NF-κB and AP-1 to the promoter region of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) thus dampening TGF-β1 transactivation. Our data reveal a previously unrecognized role of Pellino1 in extracellular matrix deposition and cardiac fibroblast activation in response to mechanical stress and provides a novel target for treatment of cardiac fibrosis and heart failure.

Integration of genome-wide of Stat3 binding and epigenetic modification mapping with transcriptome reveals novel Stat3 target genes in glioma cells

BACKGROUND

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is constitutively activated in many human tumors, including gliomas, and regulates the expression of genes implicated in proliferation, survival, apoptosis, angiogenesis and immune regulation. Only a small fraction of those genes has been proven to be direct STAT3 targets. In gliomas, STAT3 can play tumor suppressive or oncogenic roles depending on the tumor genetic background with target genes being largely unknown.

RESULTS

We used chromatin immunoprecipitation, promoter microarrays and deep sequencing to assess the genome-wide occupancy of phospho (p)-Stat3 and epigenetic modifications of H3K4me3 and H3ac in C6 glioma cells. This combined assessment identified a list of 1200 genes whose promoters have both Stat3 binding sites and epigenetic marks characteristic for actively transcribed genes. The Stat3 and histone markings data were also intersected with a set of microarray data from C6 glioma cells after inhibition of Jak2/Stat3 signaling. Subsequently, we found 284 genes characterized by p-Stat3 occupancy, activating histone marks and transcriptional changes. Novel genes were screened for their potential involvement in oncogenesis, and the most interesting hits were verified by ChIP-PCR and STAT3 knockdown in human glioma cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Non-random association between silent genes, histone marks and p-Stat3 binding near transcription start sites was observed, consistent with its repressive role in transcriptional regulation of target genes in glioma cells with specific genetic background.

The pellino e3 ubiquitin ligases recognize specific phosphothreonine motifs and have distinct substrate specificities

The four mammalian Pellinos (Pellinos 1, 2, 3a, and 3b) are E3 ubiquitin ligases that are emerging as critical mediators for a variety of immune signaling pathways, including those activated by Toll-like receptors, the T-cell receptor, and NOD2. It is becoming increasingly clear that each Pellino has a distinct role in facilitating immune receptor signaling. However, the underlying mechanisms by which these highly homologous proteins act selectively in these signaling pathways are not clear. In this study, we investigate whether Pellino substrate recognition contributes to the divergent functions of Pellinos. Substrate recognition of each Pellino is mediated by its noncanonical forkhead-associated (FHA) domain, a well-characterized phosphothreonine-binding module. Pellino FHA domains share very high sequence identity, so a molecular basis for differences in substrate recognition is not immediately apparent. To explore Pellino substrate specificity, we first identify a high-affinity Pellino2 FHA domain-binding motif in the Pellino substrate, interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 (IRAK1). Analysis of binding of the different Pellinos to a panel of phosphothreonine-containing peptides derived from the IRAK1-binding motif reveals that each Pellino has a distinct phosphothreonine peptide binding preference. We observe a similar binding specificity in the interaction of Pellinos with a number of known Pellino substrates. These results argue that the nonredundant roles that Pellinos play in immune signaling are in part due to their divergent substrate specificities. This new insight into Pellino substrate recognition could be exploited for pharmacological advantage in treating inflammatory diseases that have been linked to the aberrant regulation of Pellinos.

Cell-surface localization of Pellino antagonizes Toll-mediated innate immune signalling by controlling MyD88 turnover in Drosophila

Innate immunity mediated by Toll signalling has been extensively studied, but how Toll signalling is precisely controlled in balancing innate immune responses remains poorly understood. It was reported that the plasma membrane localization of Drosophila MyD88 is necessary for the recruitment of cytosolic adaptor Tube to the cell surface, thus contributing to Toll signalling transduction. Here we demonstrate that Drosophila Pellino functions as a negative regulator in Toll-mediated signalling. We show that Pellino accumulates at the plasma membrane upon the activation of Toll signalling in a MyD88-dependent manner. Moreover, we find that Pellino is associated with MyD88 via its CTE domain, which is necessary and sufficient to promote Pellino accumulation at the plasma membrane where it targets MyD88 for ubiquitination and degradation. Collectively, our study uncovers a mechanism by which a feedback regulatory loop involving MyD88 and Pellino controls Toll-mediated signalling, thereby maintaining homeostasis of host innate immunity.

Toll signalling activates the innate immune response; however, it remains unclear how this pathway is suppressed to avoid excessive inflammatory responses. Here, the authors report that Pellino, a RING domain-containing ubiquitin E3 ligase, is a negative regulator of Toll signalling in Drosophila.

The ubiquitin system in immune regulation

The ubiquitin system plays a pivotal role in the regulation of immune responses. This system includes a large family of E3 ubiquitin ligases of over 700 proteins and about 100 deubiquitinating enzymes, with the majority of their biological functions remaining unknown. Over the last decade, through a combination of genetic, biochemical, and molecular approaches, tremendous progress has been made in our understanding of how the process of protein ubiquitination and its reversal deubiquitination controls the basic aspect of the immune system including lymphocyte development, differentiation, activation, and tolerance induction and regulates the pathophysiological abnormalities such as autoimmunity, allergy, and malignant formation. In this review, we selected some of the published literature to discuss the roles of protein-ubiquitin conjugation and deubiquitination in T-cell activation and anergy, regulatory T-cell and T-helper cell differentiation, regulation of NF-κB signaling, and hematopoiesis in both normal and dysregulated conditions. A comprehensive understanding of the relationship between the ubiquitin system and immunity will provide insight into the molecular mechanisms of immune regulation and at the same time will advance new therapeutic intervention for human immunological diseases.

Deep resequencing of GWAS loci identifies rare variants in CARD9, IL23R and RNF186 that are associated with ulcerative colitis

Genome-wide association studies and follow-up meta-analyses in Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) have recently identified 163 disease-associated loci that meet genome-wide significance for these two inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). These discoveries have already had a tremendous impact on our understanding of the genetic architecture of these diseases and have directed functional studies that have revealed some of the biological functions that are important to IBD (e.g. autophagy). Nonetheless, these loci can only explain a small proportion of disease variance (~14% in CD and 7.5% in UC), suggesting that not only are additional loci to be found but that the known loci may contain high effect rare risk variants that have gone undetected by GWAS. To test this, we have used a targeted sequencing approach in 200 UC cases and 150 healthy controls (HC), all of French Canadian descent, to study 55 genes in regions associated with UC. We performed follow-up genotyping of 42 rare non-synonymous variants in independent case-control cohorts (totaling 14,435 UC cases and 20,204 HC). Our results confirmed significant association to rare non-synonymous coding variants in both IL23R and CARD9, previously identified from sequencing of CD loci, as well as identified a novel association in RNF186. With the exception of CARD9 (OR = 0.39), the rare non-synonymous variants identified were of moderate effect (OR = 1.49 for RNF186 and OR = 0.79 for IL23R). RNF186 encodes a protein with a RING domain having predicted E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase activity and two transmembrane domains. Importantly, the disease-coding variant is located in the ubiquitin ligase domain. Finally, our results suggest that rare variants in genes identified by genome-wide association in UC are unlikely to contribute significantly to the overall variance for the disease. Rather, these are expected to help focus functional studies of the corresponding disease loci.

Peli1 promotes microglia-mediated CNS inflammation by regulating Traf3 degradation

Microglia are crucial for the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Here we show that the E3 ubiquitin ligase Peli1 is abundantly expressed in microglia and promotes microglial activation during the course of EAE induction. Peli1 mediates the induction of chemokines and proinflammatory cytokines in microglia and thereby promotes recruitment of T cells into the central nervous system. The severity of EAE is reduced in Peli1-deficient mice despite their competent induction of inflammatory T cells in the peripheral lymphoid organs. Notably, Peli1 regulates Toll-like receptor (TLR) pathway signaling by promoting degradation of TNF receptor-associated factor 3 (Traf3), a potent inhibitor of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation and gene induction. Ablation of Traf3 restores microglial activation and CNS inflammation after the induction of EAE in Peli1-deficient mice. These findings establish Peli1 as a microglia-specific mediator of autoimmune neuroinflammation and suggest a previously unknown signaling mechanism of Peli1 function.

Regulation of nuclear factor-κB in autoimmunity

Nuclear factor (NF)-κB transcription factors are pivotal regulators of innate and adaptive immune responses, and perturbations of NF-κB signaling contribute to the pathogenesis of immunological disorders. NF-κB is a well-known proinflammatory mediator, and its deregulated activation is associated with the chronic inflammation of autoimmune diseases. Paradoxically, NF-κB plays a crucial role in the establishment of immune tolerance, including both central tolerance and the peripheral function of regulatory T (Treg) cells. Thus, defective or deregulated activation of NF-κB may contribute to autoimmunity and inflammation, highlighting the importance of tightly controlled NF-κB signaling. This review focuses on recent progress regarding NF-κB regulation and its association with autoimmunity.

Novel immune genes associated with excessive inflammatory and antiviral responses to rhinovirus in COPD

BACKGROUND

Rhinovirus (RV) is a major cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations, and primarily infects bronchial epithelial cells. Immune responses from BECs to RV infection are critical in limiting viral replication, and remain unclear in COPD. The objective of this study is to investigate innate immune responses to RV infection in COPD primary BECs (pBECs) in comparison to healthy controls.

METHODS

Primary bronchial epithelial cells (pBECs) from subjects with COPD and healthy controls were infected with RV-1B. Cells and cell supernatant were collected and analysed using gene expression microarray, qPCR, ELISA, flow cytometry and titration assay for viral replication.

RESULTS

COPD pBECs responded to RV-1B infection with an increased expression of antiviral and pro-inflammatory genes compared to healthy pBECs, including cytokines, chemokines, RNA helicases, and interferons (IFNs). Similar levels of viral replication were observed in both disease groups; however COPD pBECs were highly susceptible to apoptosis. COPD pBECs differed at baseline in the expression of 9 genes, including calgranulins S100A8/A9, and 22 genes after RV-1B infection including the signalling proteins pellino-1 and interleukin-1 receptor associated kinase 2. In COPD, IFN-β/λ1 pre-treatment did not change MDA-5/RIG-I and IFN-β expression, but resulted in higher levels IFN-λ1, CXCL-10 and CCL-5. This led to reduced viral replication, but did not increase pro-inflammatory cytokines.

CONCLUSIONS

COPD pBECs elicit an exaggerated pro-inflammatory and antiviral response to RV-1B infection, without changing viral replication. IFN pre-treatment reduced viral replication. This study identified novel genes and pathways involved in potentiating the inflammatory response to RV in COPD.

Emerging themes from EBV and KSHV microRNA targets

EBV and KSHV are both gamma-herpesviruses which express multiple viral microRNAs. Various methods have been used to investigate the functions of these microRNAs, largely through identification of microRNA target genes. Surprisingly, these related viruses do not share significant sequence homology in their microRNAs. A number of reports have described functions of EBV and KSHV microRNA targets, however only three experimentally validated target genes have been shown to be targeted by microRNAs from both viruses. More sensitive methods to identify microRNA targets have predicted approximately 60% of host targets could be shared by EBV and KSHV microRNAs, but by targeting different sequences in the host targets. In this review, we explore the similarities of microRNA functions and targets of these related viruses.