1
|
Clarke B, Holtkamp E, Öztürk H, Mück M, Wahlberg M, Meyer K, Munzlinger F, Brechtmann F, Hölzlwimmer FR, Lindner J, Chen Z, Gagneur J, Stegle O. Integration of variant annotations using deep set networks boosts rare variant association testing. Nat Genet 2024:10.1038/s41588-024-01919-z. [PMID: 39322779 DOI: 10.1038/s41588-024-01919-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024]
Abstract
Rare genetic variants can have strong effects on phenotypes, yet accounting for rare variants in genetic analyses is statistically challenging due to the limited number of allele carriers and the burden of multiple testing. While rich variant annotations promise to enable well-powered rare variant association tests, methods integrating variant annotations in a data-driven manner are lacking. Here we propose deep rare variant association testing (DeepRVAT), a model based on set neural networks that learns a trait-agnostic gene impairment score from rare variant annotations and phenotypes, enabling both gene discovery and trait prediction. On 34 quantitative and 63 binary traits, using whole-exome-sequencing data from UK Biobank, we find that DeepRVAT yields substantial gains in gene discoveries and improved detection of individuals at high genetic risk. Finally, we demonstrate how DeepRVAT enables calibrated and computationally efficient rare variant tests at biobank scale, aiding the discovery of genetic risk factors for human disease traits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian Clarke
- Division of Computational Genomics and Systems Genetics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
- AI Health Innovation Cluster, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Eva Holtkamp
- TUM School of Computation, Information and Technology, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
- Helmholtz Association-Munich School for Data Science (MUDS), Munich, Germany
- Computational Health Center, Helmholtz Center Munich, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Hakime Öztürk
- Division of Computational Genomics and Systems Genetics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marcel Mück
- AI Health Innovation Cluster, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Magnus Wahlberg
- AI Health Innovation Cluster, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kayla Meyer
- AI Health Innovation Cluster, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Felix Munzlinger
- AI Health Innovation Cluster, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Felix Brechtmann
- TUM School of Computation, Information and Technology, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
- Munich Center for Machine Learning, Munich, Germany
| | - Florian R Hölzlwimmer
- TUM School of Computation, Information and Technology, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
| | - Jonas Lindner
- TUM School of Computation, Information and Technology, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
| | - Zhifen Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Deutsches Herzzentrum München, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Herz- und Kreislaufforschung (DZHK), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany
| | - Julien Gagneur
- TUM School of Computation, Information and Technology, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany.
- Computational Health Center, Helmholtz Center Munich, Neuherberg, Germany.
- Munich Center for Machine Learning, Munich, Germany.
- Institute of Human Genetics, School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
| | - Oliver Stegle
- Division of Computational Genomics and Systems Genetics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany.
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK.
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Muacevic A, Adler JR, Xie W, Li M, Zhong L, Zhao S, Liang H. Novel Mutations of PAX6 and WFS1 Associated With Congenital Cataract in a Chinese Family. Cureus 2023; 15:e34208. [PMID: 36843716 PMCID: PMC9957680 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.34208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Congenital cataract is a common cause of blindness in childhood. About half of the cases have a genetic etiology, and more than 100 genes have been associated with congenital cataracts. This study reports the clinical and genetic findings of a two-generation Chinese family affected by congenital cataract. METHODS Ophthalmologic examinations were performed for clinical evaluation of the cataract patients. Whole exome sequencing (WES) and Sanger sequencing were used to identify potentially relevant mutations. The online programsProtein Variation Effect Analyzer (PROVEAN) and Sorting Intolerant from Tolerant (SIFT) were employed to predict the impact of variation on protein function. RESULTS Both the proband and her mother were blind because of bilateral nuclear cataracts, and the elder brother of the proband also manifested obvious bilateral cataracts. Sanger sequencing confirmed the mutations in the proband as well as in her mother. The elder brother simply carried the PAX6 c.221G>A variation. The WFS1 c.2070_2079del variation potentially generates a loss-of-function mutant. CONCLUSION The novel PAX6mutation (c.221G>A) is associated with congenital cataract, and the WFS1 mutation (c.2070_2079del) may interactively aggravates this process. These findings may increase our understanding of the genetic etiology of congenital cataract.
Collapse
|
3
|
Jiao X, Viswanathan M, Bobrova NF, Romanova TV, Hejtmancik JF. Molecular Genetic Analysis of Ukrainian Families with Congenital Cataracts. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 10:51. [PMID: 36670602 PMCID: PMC9856374 DOI: 10.3390/children10010051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
This study was designed to identify the pathogenic variants in five Ukrainian families with autosomal dominant congenital cataracts. Cataracts can be defined broadly as any opacity of the crystalline lens. Lens development is orchestrated by transcription factors. Disease-causing variants in transcription factors and their developmental target genes, including the lens crystallins, are associated with congenital cataracts and other eye diseases. Whole-exome sequencing identified heterozygous disease-causing variants in five Ukrainian families with autosomal dominant congenital cataracts and cosegregation with cataracts was confirmed using Sanger sequencing. Family 97001 showed a missense variant (c.341T>A: p.L114Q) in HSF4; family 97003 showed a missense variant (c.53A>T: p.N18I) in CRYGA; family 97004 showed a missense variant (c. 82G>A: p.V28M) in GJA3; family 97006 showed a missense variant (c.83C>T: p. P28L) in CRYGC; and family 97008 showed a single-base insertion resulting in a frameshift (c.443_444insA: p. Met148IfsTer51) in PAX6. All five families are associated with congenital cataracts. Overall, we report four novel mutations in HSF4, CRYGA, CRYGC and PAX6, and one previously reported mutation in GJA3 that cause autosomal dominant congenital cataracts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Jiao
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Mariia Viswanathan
- Vision Care Readiness Section, Vision Center of Excellence, Defense Health Agency Research and Engineering, Bethesda, MD 20889, USA
| | - Nadiia Fedorivna Bobrova
- Department of Pediatric Ophthalmic Pathology, State Institution “The Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases and Tissue Therapy of The National Academy of Medical Sciences of Odessa, Ukraine”, 65000 Odessa, Ukraine
| | - Tatiana Viktorivna Romanova
- Department of Pediatric Ophthalmic Pathology, State Institution “The Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases and Tissue Therapy of The National Academy of Medical Sciences of Odessa, Ukraine”, 65000 Odessa, Ukraine
| | - J. Fielding Hejtmancik
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cvekl A, Camerino MJ. Generation of Lens Progenitor Cells and Lentoid Bodies from Pluripotent Stem Cells: Novel Tools for Human Lens Development and Ocular Disease Etiology. Cells 2022; 11:3516. [PMID: 36359912 PMCID: PMC9658148 DOI: 10.3390/cells11213516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) into specialized tissues and organs represents a powerful approach to gain insight into those cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating human development. Although normal embryonic eye development is a complex process, generation of ocular organoids and specific ocular tissues from pluripotent stem cells has provided invaluable insights into the formation of lineage-committed progenitor cell populations, signal transduction pathways, and self-organization principles. This review provides a comprehensive summary of recent advances in generation of adenohypophyseal, olfactory, and lens placodes, lens progenitor cells and three-dimensional (3D) primitive lenses, "lentoid bodies", and "micro-lenses". These cells are produced alone or "community-grown" with other ocular tissues. Lentoid bodies/micro-lenses generated from human patients carrying mutations in crystallin genes demonstrate proof-of-principle that these cells are suitable for mechanistic studies of cataractogenesis. Taken together, current and emerging advanced in vitro differentiation methods pave the road to understand molecular mechanisms of cataract formation caused by the entire spectrum of mutations in DNA-binding regulatory genes, such as PAX6, SOX2, FOXE3, MAF, PITX3, and HSF4, individual crystallins, and other genes such as BFSP1, BFSP2, EPHA2, GJA3, GJA8, LIM2, MIP, and TDRD7 represented in human cataract patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aleš Cvekl
- Departments Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
- Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Michael John Camerino
- Departments Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
- Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Jones JL, McComish BJ, Staffieri SE, Souzeau E, Kearns LS, Elder JE, Charlesworth JC, Mackey DA, Ruddle JB, Taranath D, Pater J, Casey T, Craig JE, Burdon KP. Pathogenic genetic variants identified in Australian families with paediatric cataract. BMJ Open Ophthalmol 2022; 7:bmjophth-2022-001064. [PMID: 36161833 PMCID: PMC9422809 DOI: 10.1136/bmjophth-2022-001064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Paediatric (childhood or congenital) cataract is an opacification of the normally clear lens of the eye and has a genetic basis in at least 18% of cases in Australia. This study aimed to replicate clinical gene screening to identify variants likely to be causative of disease in an Australian patient cohort. Methods and analysis Sixty-three reported isolated cataract genes were screened for rare coding variants in 37 Australian families using genome sequencing. Results Disease-causing variants were confirmed in eight families with variant classification as ‘likely pathogenic’. This included novel variants PITX3 p.(Ter303LeuextTer100), BFSP1 p.(Glu375GlyfsTer2), and GJA8 p.(Pro189Ser), as well as, previously described variants identified in genes GJA3, GJA8, CRYAA, BFSP1, PITX3, COL4A1 and HSF4. Additionally, eight variants of uncertain significance with evidence towards pathogenicity were identified in genes: GJA3, GJA8, LEMD2, PRX, CRYBB1, BFSP2, and MIP. Conclusion These findings expand the genotype–phenotype correlations of both pathogenic and benign variation in cataract-associated genes. They further emphasise the need to develop additional evidence such as functional assays and variant classification criteria specific to paediatric cataract genes to improve interpretation of variants and molecular diagnosis in patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johanna L Jones
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Bennet J McComish
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Sandra E Staffieri
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Ophthalmology, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emmanuelle Souzeau
- Department of Ophthalmology, Flinders University, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Lisa S Kearns
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - James E Elder
- Department of Ophthalmology, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jac C Charlesworth
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - David A Mackey
- Centre for Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of Western Australia, Lions Eye Institute, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Jonathan B Ruddle
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Ophthalmology, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Deepa Taranath
- Department of Ophthalmology, Flinders University, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - John Pater
- Ophthalmology Department, Women's and Children's Hospital, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Theresa Casey
- Ophthalmology Department, Women's and Children's Hospital, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Jamie E Craig
- Department of Ophthalmology, Flinders University, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Kathryn P Burdon
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
- Department of Ophthalmology, Flinders University, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Chen D, Zhu S. Whole-exome sequencing identification of a recurrent CRYBB2 variant in a four-generation Chinese family with congenital nuclear cataracts. Exp Ther Med 2021; 22:1375. [PMID: 34650623 PMCID: PMC8506933 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2021.10810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Congenital cataracts is the most common cause of visual impairment and blindness in children. Although there have been extensive studies into the pathogenesis of congenital cataracts, the pathogenic mechanism underlying the recurrent variant CRYBB2:c.62T>A(p.I21N) has not been previously reported. Thus, the present study aimed to use whole-exome sequencing (WES) to identify potential genetic variants and investigate how they may have induced the occurrence of cataracts in a four-generation Chinese family with congenital nuclear cataracts. The medical history of this family was recorded and WES was conducted for one proband. Sanger sequencing was used to verify the presence of the putative variant in all participants. PolyPhen-2, SIFT and ProtScale were used to analyze the effect of the identified variants on protein function and hydrophobicity, and Pymol was used to show the structure of the wild-type (Wt) and mutant β-crystallin B2 (CRYBB2) protein. Full-length Wt-CRYBB2 or mutant-CRYBB2 (I21N-CRYBB2) were fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP), and the recombinant plasmids were transfected into HeLa cells. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting were used to detect the expression levels of CRYBB2 mRNA and protein. Immunofluorescence and flow cytometry analyses were used to detect protein localization and apoptosis, respectively. A recurrent variant CRYBB2:c.62T>A(p.I21N) was identified in a four-generation Chinese family with congenital nuclear cataracts. Multiple-sequence alignment of CRYBB2 demonstrated that codon 21 was highly conserved. Pymol revealed that the structure of the I21N-CRYBB2 protein was distinct from that of Wt-CRYBB2. PolyPhen-2 predicted that it had a variant provean score 1.0, suggesting it was 'probably damaging', and SIFT predicted it had a variant provean score of -5.113, indicating it was 'deleterious'. ProtScale indicated that the hydrophobicity of the mutation site was significantly reduced. The protein expression levels of the I21N-CRYBB2 were decreased compared with the Wt-CRYBB2. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that the variant I21N-CRYBB2 protein tended to accumulate around the nucleus, and flow cytometry analysis indicated that it increased cell apoptosis. Furthermore, I21N-CRYBB2 induced the activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR). In conclusion, a pathogenic variant of CRYBB2:c.62T>A(p.I21N) was identified via WES in a four-generation Chinese family with congenital nuclear cataracts. Through biological analysis, it was found that the variant induced abnormal protein aggregation, activated the UPR and triggered excessive cell apoptosis, which may lead to the occurrence of congenital nuclear cataracts in this family.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Doudou Chen
- Eye School of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 610075, P.R. China.,Department of Ophthalmology, Ineye Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 610032, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province Ophthalmopathy Prevention & Cure and Visual Function Protection, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 610032, P.R. China
| | - Siquan Zhu
- Eye School of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 610075, P.R. China.,Department of Ophthalmology, Ineye Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 610032, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province Ophthalmopathy Prevention & Cure and Visual Function Protection, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 610032, P.R. China.,Department of Ophthalmology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100006, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Lee CY, Chen HT, Hsueh YJ, Chen HC, James Meir YJ, Wu WC. Sporadic zonular cataract found by scleral penetration. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep 2021; 22:101101. [PMID: 34027227 PMCID: PMC8131396 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajoc.2021.101101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To present a case of bilateral zonular cataract without visual deterioration. Observation A 41-year-old Taiwanese Han male presented with severe left ocular pain after being hit by iron filings while working. The iron dust was removed in a local hospital but due to a scleral laceration diagnosis he was referred to our hospital for further management. On examination, best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) of 20/25 in the right eye and 20/200 in the left eye were obtained, while the before BCVA was 20/25 in the both eyes. The slit-lamp biomicroscopy demonstrated bilateral zonular cataract and left scleral full-thickness laceration with vitreous prolapse. The scleral suture procedure was then performed smoothly and the patient discharged three days later with BCVA in the left eye recovered to 20/30. Conclusion and Importance The bilateral zonular cataract without associated systemic disorder is a rare form, which may be found incidentally with no visual symptoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Yi Lee
- Department of Ophthalmology, Show Chwan Memorial Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Hung-Ta Chen
- Department of Internal Medicine, Taipei City Hospital- Heping Branch, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Jen Hsueh
- Department of Ophthalmology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,Center for Tissue Engineering, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Hung-Chi Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,Center for Tissue Engineering, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,Department of Medicine, College of Medicine Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yaa-Jyuhn James Meir
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine Chang Gung University, Taiyuan, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Chi Wu
- Center for Tissue Engineering, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,Department of Medicine, College of Medicine Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Fernández-Alcalde C, Nieves-Moreno M, Noval S, Peralta JM, Montaño VEF, del Pozo Á, Santos-Simarro F, Vallespín E. Molecular and Genetic Mechanism of Non-Syndromic Congenital Cataracts. Mutation Screening in Spanish Families. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:580. [PMID: 33923544 PMCID: PMC8072554 DOI: 10.3390/genes12040580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Our purpose was to identify mutations responsible for non-syndromic congenital cataracts through the implementation of next-generation sequencing (NGS) in our center. A sample of peripheral blood was obtained from probands and willing family members and genomic DNA was extracted from leukocytes. DNA was analyzed implementing a panel (OFTv2.1) including 39 known congenital cataracts disease genes. 62 probands from 51 families were recruited. Pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants were identified in 32 patients and 25 families; in 16 families (64%) these were de novo mutations. The mutation detection rate was 49%. Almost all reported mutations were autosomal dominant. Mutations in crystallin genes were found in 30% of the probands. Mutations in membrane proteins were detected in seven families (two in GJA3 and five in GJA8). Mutations in LIM2 and MIP were each found in three families. Other mutations detected affected EPHA2, PAX6, HSF4 and PITX3. Variants classified as of unknown significance were found in 5 families (9.8%), affecting CRYBB3, LIM2, EPHA2, ABCB6 and TDRD7. Mutations lead to different cataract phenotypes within the same family.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Celia Fernández-Alcalde
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hospital Universitario La Paz, 28046 Madrid, Spain; (M.N.-M.); (S.N.); (J.M.P.)
| | - María Nieves-Moreno
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hospital Universitario La Paz, 28046 Madrid, Spain; (M.N.-M.); (S.N.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Susana Noval
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hospital Universitario La Paz, 28046 Madrid, Spain; (M.N.-M.); (S.N.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Jesús M. Peralta
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hospital Universitario La Paz, 28046 Madrid, Spain; (M.N.-M.); (S.N.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Victoria E. F. Montaño
- Department of Molecular Ophthalmology, Medical and Molecular Genetics Institute (INGEMM) IdiPaz, CIBERER, Hospital Universitario La Paz, 28046 Madrid, Spain; (V.E.F.M.); (E.V.)
| | - Ángela del Pozo
- Department of Clinical Bioinformatics, Medical and Molecular Genetics Institute (INGEMM) IdiPaz, CIBERER, Hospital Universitario La Paz, 28046 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Fernando Santos-Simarro
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Medical and Molecular Genetics Institute (INGEMM) IdiPaz, CIBERER, Hospital Universitario La Paz, 28046 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Elena Vallespín
- Department of Molecular Ophthalmology, Medical and Molecular Genetics Institute (INGEMM) IdiPaz, CIBERER, Hospital Universitario La Paz, 28046 Madrid, Spain; (V.E.F.M.); (E.V.)
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Ni SH, Zhang JM, Zhao J. A novel missense mutation of CRYBA1 in a northern Chinese family with inherited coronary cataract with blue punctate opacities. Eur J Ophthalmol 2021; 32:193-199. [PMID: 33827296 DOI: 10.1177/11206721211008355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To demonstrate the underlying genetic defect that contribute to inherited cataract in a northern Chinese pedigree. METHODS The study recruited a family pedigree with a diagnosis of bilateral coronary cataract with blue punctate opacities. Fourteen family members and 100 healthy volunteers were enrolled. DNA sample of the proband in this family were analyzed by high-throughput sequencing, which was then demonstrated by Sanger sequencing in the remained people in the family and 100 controls. The functional effect of mutant genes was investigated via bioinformatics analysis, including Polymorphism Phenotyping version2 (PolyPhen-2), Protein Variation Effect Analyzer (PROVEAN v1.1.3) Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT), and Mutation Taster. RESULTS In this three-generation family, a novel heterozygous mutation was found in the kinase domain of CRYBA1 gene (c.340C > T, p.R114C), which was only detected in patients in the family with inherited cataract and were not detected in the remained people in the family nor in normal people. The pathogenic effect of the mutation was verified via bioinformatics analysis. CONCLUSION Our study presented the molecular experiments to confirm that a novel missense mutation of c.340 C > T located in exon 4 of CRYBA1 gene results in a bilateral coronary cataract with blue punctate opacities, which enriches the mutation spectrum of CRYBA1 gene in inherited cataract and deepens the understanding of the pathogenesis of inherited cataract.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Hua Ni
- School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Juan-Mei Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi, China
| | - Jun Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi, China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Syafruddin SE, Ling S, Low TY, Mohtar MA. More Than Meets the Eye: Revisiting the Roles of Heat Shock Factor 4 in Health and Diseases. Biomolecules 2021; 11:523. [PMID: 33807297 PMCID: PMC8066111 DOI: 10.3390/biom11040523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells encounter a myriad of endogenous and exogenous stresses that could perturb cellular physiological processes. Therefore, cells are equipped with several adaptive and stress-response machinery to overcome and survive these insults. One such machinery is the heat shock response (HSR) program that is governed by the heat shock factors (HSFs) family in response towards elevated temperature, free radicals, oxidants, and heavy metals. HSF4 is a member of this HSFs family that could exist in two predominant isoforms, either the transcriptional repressor HSFa or transcriptional activator HSF4b. HSF4 is constitutively active due to the lack of oligomerization negative regulator domain. HSF4 has been demonstrated to play roles in several physiological processes and not only limited to regulating the classical heat shock- or stress-responsive transcriptional programs. In this review, we will revisit and delineate the recent updates on HSF4 molecular properties. We also comprehensively discuss the roles of HSF4 in health and diseases, particularly in lens cell development, cataract formation, and cancer pathogenesis. Finally, we will posit the potential direction of HSF4 future research that could enhance our knowledge on HSF4 molecular networks as well as physiological and pathophysiological functions.
Collapse
|
11
|
A novel missense mutation in the HSF4 gene of giant pandas with senile congenital cataracts. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5411. [PMID: 33686159 PMCID: PMC7940430 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84741-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cataracts are a common cause of visual impairment and blindness in mammals. They are usually associated with aging, but approximately one third of cases have a significant genetic component. Cataracts are increasingly prevalent among aging populations of captive giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and it is therefore important to identify genetic determinants that influence the likelihood of cataract development in order to distinguish between congenital and age-related disease. Here we screened for cataract-related genetic effects using a functional candidate gene approach combined with bioinformatics to identify the underlying genetic defect in a giant panda with congenital cataracts. We identified a missense mutation in exon 10 of the HSF4 gene encoding heat shock transcription factor 4. The mutation causes the amino acid substitution R377W in a highly conserved segment of the protein between the isoform-specific and downstream hydrophobic regions. Predictive modeling revealed that the substitution is likely to increase the hydrophobicity of the protein and disrupt interactions with spatially adjacent amino acid side chains. The mutation was not found in 13 unaffected unrelated animals but was found in an unrelated animal also diagnosed with senile congenital cataract. The novel missense mutation in the HSF4 gene therefore provides a potential new genetic determinant that could help to predict the risk of cataracts in giant pandas.
Collapse
|
12
|
Puustinen MC, Sistonen L. Molecular Mechanisms of Heat Shock Factors in Cancer. Cells 2020; 9:cells9051202. [PMID: 32408596 PMCID: PMC7290425 DOI: 10.3390/cells9051202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignant transformation is accompanied by alterations in the key cellular pathways that regulate development, metabolism, proliferation and motility as well as stress resilience. The members of the transcription factor family, called heat shock factors (HSFs), have been shown to play important roles in all of these biological processes, and in the past decade it has become evident that their activities are rewired during tumorigenesis. This review focuses on the expression patterns and functions of HSF1, HSF2, and HSF4 in specific cancer types, highlighting the mechanisms by which the regulatory functions of these transcription factors are modulated. Recently developed therapeutic approaches that target HSFs are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mikael Christer Puustinen
- Cell Biology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6, 20520 Turku, Finland;
- Turku Bioscience, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Lea Sistonen
- Cell Biology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6, 20520 Turku, Finland;
- Turku Bioscience, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6, 20520 Turku, Finland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +358-2215-3311
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Ji Y, Zhao X, Zhang J, Zhang D, Tian C, Zhang L, Zhao Y, Zhao J. A novel missense mutation of CRYBB1 causes congenital cataract in a Chinese family. Eur J Ophthalmol 2020; 31:1064-1069. [PMID: 32223445 DOI: 10.1177/1120672120914497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY To identify the pathogenic gene and mutation site of a Chinese family with congenital cataract. METHODS Eight family members and 100 controls were employed, and targeted exome sequencing was used to identify the genetically pathogenic factor of the proband. RESULTS Targeted next-generation sequencing identified a novel missense mutation c.209A>C (p.Q70P) of CRYBB1 gene in the family. Sanger sequencing results showed that this heterozygous mutation was a causative mutation, which was not found in unaffected family members and healthy controls. Bioinformatics predicts that the effect of this mutation on protein function is probably harmful. CONCLUSION We demonstrate that c.209A>C of CRYBB1 gene is a pathogenic mutation in the family of congenital nuclear cataract in this study. This is the first report that this mutation leads to congenital nuclear cataract, which broadens the mutation spectrum of CRYBB1 gene in congenital nuclear cataract.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Ji
- Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiangyu Zhao
- Department of Medical Genetics, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi, China
| | - Juanmei Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi, China
| | - Dan Zhang
- Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Chunliu Tian
- Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Linlin Zhang
- Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | | | - Jun Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Li L, Fan DB, Zhao YT, Li Y, Yang ZB, Zheng GY. GJA8 missense mutation disrupts hemichannels and induces cell apoptosis in human lens epithelial cells. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19157. [PMID: 31844091 PMCID: PMC6915756 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55549-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Autosomal dominant congenital cataract (ADCC), the most common hereditary disease, is a major cause of eye disease in children. Due to its high genetic and clinical heterogeneity, the identification of ADCC-associated gene mutations is essential for the development of molecular therapies. In this study, we examined a four-generation Chinese pedigree with ADCC and identified putative mutations in ADCC candidate genes via next-generation sequencing (NGS) followed by Sanger sequencing. A novel missense mutation in GJA8 (c.T217C) in ADCC patients causes a serine-to-proline substitution at residue 73 of connexin 50 (Cx50); no mutation was found in unaffected family members and unrelated healthy individuals. Functional analysis revealed that this missense mutation disrupts protein function in human lens epithelial cells (HLEpiCs), which fails to form calcium-sensitive hemichannels. Furthermore, mutant Cx50 leads to decreased ROS scavenging by inhibiting G6PD expression and thus induces cell apoptosis via aberrant activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR). In conclusion, we report a novel GJA8 heterozygous mutation in a Chinese family with a vital role in ADCC, broadening the genetic spectrum of this disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- Ophthalmologic Center, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Da-Bei Fan
- Endocrine Department, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Ya-Ting Zhao
- Ophthalmologic Center, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Yun Li
- Ophthalmologic Center, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Zi-Bing Yang
- Ophthalmologic Center, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Guang-Ying Zheng
- Ophthalmologic Center, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Structural analysis of missense mutations occurring in the DNA-binding domain of HSF4 associated with congenital cataracts. JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY-X 2019; 4:100015. [PMID: 32647819 PMCID: PMC7337047 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjsbx.2019.100015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
High-resolution structures of wild-type and K23N mutant DBD in HSF4 were determined. Cataract-related mutations in HSF4 were structurally analyzed through MD simulation. Mutations Q61R, K64E, R73H, R116H and R119C likely perturb DNA-binding activity. Mutations K23N, P60H and L114P probably affect trimer formation or folding dynamics. Mutations A19D, H35Y and I86V may be false positives leading to trivial impacts.
Congenital cataract (CC) is the major cause of childish blindness, and nearly 50% of CCs are hereditary disorders. HSF4, a member of the heat shock transcription factor family, acts as a key regulator of cell growth and differentiation during the development of sensory organs. Missense mutations in the HSF4-encoding gene have been reported to cause CC formation; in particular, those occurring within the DNA-binding domain (DBD) are usually autosomal dominant mutations. To address how the identified mutations lead to HSF4 malfunction by placing adverse impacts on protein structure and DNA-binding specificity and affinity, we determined two high-resolution structures of the wild-type DBD and the K23N mutant of human HSF4, built DNA-binding models, conducted in silico mutations and molecular dynamics simulations. Our analysis suggests four possible structural mechanisms underlining the missense mutations in HSF4-DBD and cataractogenesis: (i), disruption of HSE recognition; (ii), perturbation of protein-DNA interactions; (iii), alteration of protein folding; (iv), other impacts, e.g. inhibition of protein oligomerization.
Collapse
|
16
|
Downregulation of heat shock factor 4 transcription activity via MAPKinase phosphorylation at Serine 299. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2018; 105:61-69. [PMID: 30316871 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2018.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 10/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Dysfunction of HSF4 is associated with congenital cataracts. HSF4 transcription activity is turned on and regulated by phosphorylation during early postnatal lens development. Our previous data suggested that mutation HSF4b/S299A can upregulate HSF4 transcription activity in vitro, but the biological significance of posttranslational modification on HSF4/S299 during lens development remains unclear. Here, we found that the mutation HSF4/S299A can upregulate the expression of HSP25 and alpha B-crystallin at both protein and mRNA levels in mouse the lens epithelial cell line, but HSF4/S299D does not. Using the rabbit polyclonal antibody against phospho-S299 of HSF4, we found that EGF and ectopic expression of MEK1 can increase the phosphorylation of HSF4/S299 and induce HSF4 sumoylation, and these effects are inhibited by U0126. ERK1/2 can phosphorylate the S299 in HSF4/wt but not in HSF4/S299A in the in vitro kinase assay. Functionally, ectopic MEK1 can inhibit HSF4-controled alpha B-crystallin expression but has less effect on HSF4/S299A. EGF can upregulate phospho-HSF4/S299 and downregulate alpha B-crystallin expression in P3 mouse lens, and this downregulation is suppressed by U0126. During mouse lens development, phosphorylation of HSF4/S299 is downregulated in P3 lens and upregulated in P7 and P14 lens. However, in 2 months old lens, both phosphorylation of HSF4/S299 and total HSF4 protein are decreased. Interestingly, ERK1/2 activity is lower in P3 lens than in P7 and P14 lens, which is in line with the phosphorylation of HSF4/S299. Taken together, our data demonstrate that HSF4/299 is a phosphorylation target of MEK1-ERK1/2, and phosphorylation of S299 is responsible for tuning down HSF4 transcription activity during postnatal lens development.
Collapse
|
17
|
Reis LM, Semina EV. Genetic landscape of isolated pediatric cataracts: extreme heterogeneity and variable inheritance patterns within genes. Hum Genet 2018; 138:847-863. [PMID: 30187164 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-018-1932-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Pediatric cataract represents an important cause of pediatric visual impairment. While both genetic and environmental causes for pediatric cataract are known, a large proportion remains idiopathic. The purpose of this review is to discuss genes involved in isolated pediatric cataract, with a focus on variable inheritance patterns within genes. Mutations in over 52 genes are known to cause isolated pediatric cataract, with a major contribution from genes encoding for crystallins, transcription factors, membrane proteins, and cytoskeletal proteins. Interestingly, both dominant and recessive inheritance patterns have been reported for mutations in 13 different cataract genes. For some genes, dominant and recessive alleles represent distinct types of mutations, but for many, especially missense variants, there are no clear patterns to distinguish between dominant and recessive alleles. Further research into the functional effects of these mutations, as well as additional data on the frequency of the identified variants, is needed to clarify variant pathogenicity. Exome sequencing continues to be successful in identifying novel genes associated with congenital cataract but is hindered by the extreme genetic heterogeneity of this condition. The large number of idiopathic cases suggests that more genes and potentially novel mechanisms of gene disruption remain to be identified.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linda M Reis
- Department of Pediatrics and Children's Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, 53226, USA
| | - Elena V Semina
- Department of Pediatrics and Children's Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, 53226, USA. .,Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, 53226, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Berry V, Ionides ACW, Pontikos N, Moghul I, Moore AT, Cheetham ME, Michaelides M. Whole-genome sequencing reveals a recurrent missense mutation in the Connexin 46 (GJA3) gene causing autosomal-dominant lamellar cataract. Eye (Lond) 2018; 32:1661-1668. [PMID: 29934635 PMCID: PMC6189195 DOI: 10.1038/s41433-018-0154-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Revised: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Congenital cataract, opacification of the ocular lens, is clinically and genetically a heterogeneous childhood disease. In this study we aimed to identify the underlying genetic cause of isolated autosomal-dominant lamellar cataract in a multi-generation English family. METHODS Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) was undertaken in two affected subjects and one unaffected individual. Segregation analysis was performed and a known cataract-causing mutation was identified. Segregation was further validated by sanger sequencing in the entire pedigree. RESULTS A heterozygous mutation c.7 G > T; p.D3Y was identified in an NH2-terminal region of the gap junction protein GJA3 and found to co-segregate with disease. CONCLUSION We have identified a recurrent mutation in GJA3 in a large British pedigree causing the novel phenotype of autosomal-dominant congenital lamellar cataract. Previously, p.D3Y was found in a Hispanic family causing pulverulent cataract. WGS proved an efficient method to find the underlying molecular cause in this large family, which could not be mapped due to uninformative markers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vanita Berry
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London, EC1V 9EL, UK.
| | | | - Nikolas Pontikos
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London, EC1V 9EL, UK
- UCL Genetics Institute, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Ismail Moghul
- UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London, WC1E 6DD, UK
| | - Anthony T Moore
- Moorfields Eye Hospital, London, EC1V 2PD, UK
- Ophthalmology Department, University of California School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | | | - Michel Michaelides
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London, EC1V 9EL, UK.
- Moorfields Eye Hospital, London, EC1V 2PD, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Anand D, Agrawal SA, Slavotinek A, Lachke SA. Mutation update of transcription factor genes FOXE3, HSF4, MAF, and PITX3 causing cataracts and other developmental ocular defects. Hum Mutat 2018; 39:471-494. [PMID: 29314435 PMCID: PMC5839989 DOI: 10.1002/humu.23395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the transcription factor genes FOXE3, HSF4, MAF, and PITX3 cause congenital lens defects including cataracts that may be accompanied by defects in other components of the eye or in nonocular tissues. We comprehensively describe here all the variants in FOXE3, HSF4, MAF, and PITX3 genes linked to human developmental defects. A total of 52 variants for FOXE3, 18 variants for HSF4, 20 variants for MAF, and 19 variants for PITX3 identified so far in isolated cases or within families are documented. This effort reveals FOXE3, HSF4, MAF, and PITX3 to have 33, 16, 18, and 7 unique causal mutations, respectively. Loss-of-function mutant animals for these genes have served to model the pathobiology of the associated human defects, and we discuss the currently known molecular function of these genes, particularly with emphasis on their role in ocular development. Finally, we make the detailed FOXE3, HSF4, MAF, and PITX3 variant information available in the Leiden Online Variation Database (LOVD) platform at https://www.LOVD.nl/FOXE3, https://www.LOVD.nl/HSF4, https://www.LOVD.nl/MAF, and https://www.LOVD.nl/PITX3. Thus, this article informs on key variants in transcription factor genes linked to cataract, aphakia, corneal opacity, glaucoma, microcornea, microphthalmia, anterior segment mesenchymal dysgenesis, and Ayme-Gripp syndrome, and facilitates their access through Web-based databases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Deepti Anand
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716 USA
| | - Smriti A. Agrawal
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716 USA
| | - Anne Slavotinek
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Genetics, University of California, UCSF Benioff Children’s Hospital, San Francisco, CA 19716 USA
| | - Salil A. Lachke
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716 USA
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19711 USA
| |
Collapse
|