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Hussein M, Andrade dos Ramos Z, Vink MA, Kroon P, Yu Z, Enjuanes L, Zuñiga S, Berkhout B, Herrera-Carrillo E. Efficient CRISPR-Cas13d-Based Antiviral Strategy to Combat SARS-CoV-2. Viruses 2023; 15:v15030686. [PMID: 36992394 PMCID: PMC10051389 DOI: 10.3390/v15030686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic forms a major global health burden. Although protective vaccines are available, concerns remain as new virus variants continue to appear. CRISPR-based gene-editing approaches offer an attractive therapeutic strategy as the CRISPR-RNA (crRNA) can be adjusted rapidly to accommodate a new viral genome sequence. This study aimed at using the RNA-targeting CRISPR-Cas13d system to attack highly conserved sequences in the viral RNA genome, thereby preparing for future zoonotic outbreaks of other coronaviruses. We designed 29 crRNAs targeting highly conserved sequences along the complete SARS-CoV-2 genome. Several crRNAs demonstrated efficient silencing of a reporter with the matching viral target sequence and efficient inhibition of a SARS-CoV-2 replicon. The crRNAs that suppress SARS-CoV-2 were also able to suppress SARS-CoV, thus demonstrating the breadth of this antiviral strategy. Strikingly, we observed that only crRNAs directed against the plus-genomic RNA demonstrated antiviral activity in the replicon assay, in contrast to those that bind the minus-genomic RNA, the replication intermediate. These results point to a major difference in the vulnerability and biology of the +RNA versus −RNA strands of the SARS-CoV-2 genome and provide important insights for the design of RNA-targeting antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mouraya Hussein
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Zaria Andrade dos Ramos
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Monique A. Vink
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Pascal Kroon
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Zhenghao Yu
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luis Enjuanes
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, National Center of Biotechnology (CNB-CSIC), Campus Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Sonia Zuñiga
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, National Center of Biotechnology (CNB-CSIC), Campus Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ben Berkhout
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Elena Herrera-Carrillo
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Correspondence:
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2
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Hussein M, Molina MA, Berkhout B, Herrera-Carrillo E. A CRISPR-Cas Cure for HIV/AIDS. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:1563. [PMID: 36675077 PMCID: PMC9863116 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections and HIV-induced acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) continue to represent a global health burden. There is currently no effective vaccine, nor any cure, for HIV infections; existing antiretroviral therapy can suppress viral replication, but only as long as antiviral drugs are taken. HIV infects cells of the host immune system, and it can establish a long-lived viral reservoir, which can be targeted and edited through gene therapy. Gene editing platforms based on the clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeat-Cas system (CRISPR-Cas) have been recognized as promising tools in the development of gene therapies for HIV infections. In this review, we evaluate the current landscape of CRISPR-Cas-based therapies against HIV, with an emphasis on the infection biology of the virus as well as the activity of host restriction factors. We discuss the potential of a combined CRISPR-Cas approach that targets host and viral genes to activate antiviral host factors and inhibit viral replication simultaneously. Lastly, we focus on the challenges and potential solutions of CRISPR-Cas gene editing approaches in achieving an HIV cure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Elena Herrera-Carrillo
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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3
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Jai J, Shirleen D, Hanbali C, Wijaya P, Anginan TB, Husada W, Pratama MY. Multiplexed shRNA-miRs as a candidate for anti HIV-1 therapy: strategies, challenges, and future potential. J Genet Eng Biotechnol 2022; 20:172. [PMID: 36576612 PMCID: PMC9797628 DOI: 10.1186/s43141-022-00451-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The spread of HIV is on the rise and has become a global issue, especially for underdeveloped and developing countries. This is due to the fact that HIV majorly occurs asymptomatically and is implausible for early diagnosis. Recent advances in research and science have enabled the investigation of a new potential treatment involving gene-based therapy, known as RNA interference (RNAi) that will direct gene silencing and further compensate for natural variants and viral mutants. Several types of small regulatory RNA are discussed in this present study, including microRNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), and short hairpin RNA (shRNA).This paper examines the mechanism of RNAi as a viable HIV therapy, using a minimum of four shRNAs to target both dispensable host components (CCR5) and viral genes (Gag, Env, Tat, Pol I, Pol II and Vif). Moreover, a multiplexed mechanism of shRNAs and miRNA is known to be effective in preventing viral escape due to mutation as the miRNA develops a general polycistronic platform for the expression of a large amount of shRNA-miRs. Several administration methods as well as the advantages of this RNAi treatment are also discussed in this study. The administration methods include (1) ex vivo delivery with the help of viral vectors, nanoparticles, and electroporation, (2) nonspecific in vivo delivery using non-viral carriers including liposomes, dendrimers and aptamers, as well as (3) targeted delivery that uses antibodies, modified nanoparticles, nucleic acid aptamers, and tissue-specific serotypes of AAV. Moreover, the advantages of this treatment are related to the effectiveness in silencing the HIV gene, which is more compatible compared to other gene therapy treatments, such as ZFN, TALEN, and CRISPR/Cas9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyotsna Jai
- grid.504251.70000 0004 7706 8927Department of Biotechnology, Indonesia International Institute for Life-Sciences (i3L), Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Deborah Shirleen
- grid.504251.70000 0004 7706 8927Department of Biotechnology, Indonesia International Institute for Life-Sciences (i3L), Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Christian Hanbali
- grid.504251.70000 0004 7706 8927Department of Biomedicine, Indonesia International Institute for Life-Sciences (i3L), Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Pamela Wijaya
- grid.504251.70000 0004 7706 8927Department of Biomedicine, Indonesia International Institute for Life-Sciences (i3L), Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Theresia Brigita Anginan
- grid.504251.70000 0004 7706 8927Department of Biomedicine, Indonesia International Institute for Life-Sciences (i3L), Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - William Husada
- grid.504251.70000 0004 7706 8927Department of Biotechnology, Indonesia International Institute for Life-Sciences (i3L), Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Muhammad Yogi Pratama
- grid.504251.70000 0004 7706 8927Department of Biomedicine, Indonesia International Institute for Life-Sciences (i3L), Jakarta, Indonesia ,grid.240324.30000 0001 2109 4251Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, New York University Medical Center, New York, USA
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4
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Becker J, Stanifer ML, Leist SR, Stolp B, Maiakovska O, West A, Wiedtke E, Börner K, Ghanem A, Ambiel I, Tse LV, Fackler OT, Baric RS, Boulant S, Grimm D. Ex vivo and in vivo suppression of SARS-CoV-2 with combinatorial AAV/RNAi expression vectors. Mol Ther 2022; 30:2005-2023. [PMID: 35038579 PMCID: PMC8758558 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2022.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite rapid development and deployment of vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), clinically relevant modalities to curb the pandemic by directly attacking the virus on a genetic level remain highly desirable and are urgently needed. Here we comprehensively illustrate the capacity of adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors co-expressing a cocktail of three short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs; RNAi triggers) directed against the SARS-CoV-2 RdRp and N genes as versatile and effective antiviral agents. In cultured monkey cells and human gut organoids, our most potent vector, SAVIOR (SARS virus repressor), suppressed SARS-CoV-2 infection to background levels. Strikingly, in control experiments using single shRNAs, multiple SARS-CoV-2 escape mutants quickly emerged from infected cells within 24-48 h. Importantly, such adverse viral adaptation was fully prevented with the triple-shRNA AAV vector even during long-term cultivation. In addition, AAV-SAVIOR efficiently purged SARS-CoV-2 in a new model of chronically infected human intestinal cells. Finally, intranasal AAV-SAVIOR delivery using an AAV9 capsid moderately diminished viral loads and/or alleviated disease symptoms in hACE2-transgenic or wild-type mice infected with human or mouse SARS-CoV-2 strains, respectively. Our combinatorial and customizable AAV/RNAi vector complements ongoing global efforts to control the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and holds great potential for clinical translation as an original and flexible preventive or therapeutic antiviral measure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Becker
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Medical Faculty, University of Heidelberg, BioQuant BQ0030, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Faculty of Biosciences, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Megan Lynn Stanifer
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Molecular Virology, Medical Faculty, Center for Integrative Infectious Diseases Research (CIID), University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Sarah Rebecca Leist
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, 3304 Michael Hooker Research Building, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Bettina Stolp
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Integrative Virology, Medical Faculty, Center for Integrative Infectious Diseases Research (CIID), University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Olena Maiakovska
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Medical Faculty, University of Heidelberg, BioQuant BQ0030, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ande West
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, 3304 Michael Hooker Research Building, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Ellen Wiedtke
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Medical Faculty, University of Heidelberg, BioQuant BQ0030, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kathleen Börner
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Medical Faculty, University of Heidelberg, BioQuant BQ0030, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Medical Faculty, Center for Integrative Infectious Diseases Research (CIID), University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ali Ghanem
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Medical Faculty, University of Heidelberg, BioQuant BQ0030, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ina Ambiel
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, 3304 Michael Hooker Research Building, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Longping Victor Tse
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, 3304 Michael Hooker Research Building, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Oliver Till Fackler
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Integrative Virology, Medical Faculty, Center for Integrative Infectious Diseases Research (CIID), University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ralph Steven Baric
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, 3304 Michael Hooker Research Building, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Steeve Boulant
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Dirk Grimm
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Medical Faculty, University of Heidelberg, BioQuant BQ0030, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Medical Faculty, Center for Integrative Infectious Diseases Research (CIID), University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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5
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Hussein M, Andrade dos Ramos Z, Berkhout B, Herrera-Carrillo E. In Silico Prediction and Selection of Target Sequences in the SARS-CoV-2 RNA Genome for an Antiviral Attack. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020385. [PMID: 35215977 PMCID: PMC8880226 DOI: 10.3390/v14020385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has urged the development of protective vaccines and the search for specific antiviral drugs. The modern molecular biology tools provides alternative methods, such as CRISPR-Cas and RNA interference, that can be adapted as antiviral approaches, and contribute to this search. The unique CRISPR-Cas13d system, with the small crRNA guide molecule, mediates a sequence-specific attack on RNA, and can be developed as an anti-coronavirus strategy. We analyzed the SARS-CoV-2 genome to localize the hypothetically best crRNA-annealing sites of 23 nucleotides based on our extensive expertise with sequence-specific antiviral strategies. We considered target sites of which the sequence is well-conserved among SARS-CoV-2 isolates. As we should prepare for a potential future outbreak of related viruses, we screened for targets that are conserved between SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV. To further broaden the search, we screened for targets that are conserved between SARS-CoV-2 and the more distantly related MERS-CoV, as well as the four other human coronaviruses (OC43, 229E, NL63, HKU1). Finally, we performed a search for pan-corona target sequences that are conserved among all these coronaviruses, including the new Omicron variant, that are able to replicate in humans. This survey may contribute to the design of effective, safe, and escape-proof antiviral strategies to prepare for future pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ben Berkhout
- Correspondence: (B.B.); (E.H.-C.); Tel.: +31-20-566-4822 (B.B.); +31-20-566-4865 (E.H.-C.)
| | - Elena Herrera-Carrillo
- Correspondence: (B.B.); (E.H.-C.); Tel.: +31-20-566-4822 (B.B.); +31-20-566-4865 (E.H.-C.)
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6
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Specific properties of shRNA-mediated CCR5 downregulation that enhance the inhibition of HIV-1 infection in combination with shRNA targeting HIV-1 rev. Mol Biol Rep 2022; 49:11187-11192. [PMID: 36098885 PMCID: PMC9618491 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-022-07899-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Treatment with RNAi against HIV-1 transcripts efficiently inhibits viral replication but induces selection of escape mutants; therefore, the CCR5 coreceptor was suggested as an additional target. Blocking viral and host transcripts improved the antiviral effect. We have used short hairpin RNA (shRNA) targeting the human CCR5 (shCCR5) or the HIV-1 rev (shRev) transcripts to demonstrate distinctive properties of anti-CCR5 shRNA: shCCR5 induced more sustained protection than shRev; partial reduction in CCR5 expression substantially decreased HIV-1 infection, and shCCR5 performed better than shRev in the mixed shRNA-treated and untreated cultures. These observations indicate that CCR5 inhibitors should be conveniently included in HIV-1 gene silencing treatment schedules when only a certain cell fraction is protected to further reduce endogenous virus in a properly ART-treated HIV-1 infected individual.
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7
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Quasispecies dynamics in disease prevention and control. VIRUS AS POPULATIONS 2020. [PMCID: PMC7153035 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816331-3.00008-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Medical interventions to prevent and treat viral disease constitute evolutionary forces that may modify the genetic composition of viral populations that replicate in an infected host and influence the genomic composition of those viruses that are transmitted and progress at the epidemiological level. Given the adaptive potential of viruses in general and the RNA viruses in particular, the selection of viral mutants that display some degree of resistance to inhibitors or vaccines is a tangible challenge. Mutant selection may jeopardize control of the viral disease. Strategies intended to minimize vaccination and treatment failures are proposed and justified based on fundamental features of viral dynamics explained in the preceding chapters. The recommended use of complex, multiepitopic vaccines, and combination therapies as early as possible after initiation of infection falls under the general concept that complexity cannot be combated with simplicity. It also follows that sociopolitical action to interrupt virus replication and spread as soon as possible is as important as scientifically sound treatment designs to control viral disease on a global scale.
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8
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Darcis G, Binda CS, Klaver B, Herrera-Carrillo E, Berkhout B, Das AT. The Impact of HIV-1 Genetic Diversity on CRISPR-Cas9 Antiviral Activity and Viral Escape. Viruses 2019; 11:E255. [PMID: 30871200 PMCID: PMC6466431 DOI: 10.3390/v11030255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9 system is widely explored for sequence-specific attack on HIV-1 proviral DNA. We recently identified dual-guide RNA (dual-gRNA) combinations that can block HIV-1 replication permanently in infected cell cultures and prevent viral escape. Although the gRNAs were designed to target highly conserved viral sequences, their efficacy may be challenged by high genetic variation in the HIV-1 genome. We therefore evaluated the breadth of these dual-gRNA combinations against distinct HIV-1 isolates, including several subtypes. Replication of nearly all virus isolates could be prevented by at least one gRNA combination, which caused inactivation of the proviral genomes and the gradual loss of replication-competent virus over time. The dual-gRNA efficacy was not affected by most single nucleotide (nt) mismatches between gRNA and the viral target. However, 1-nt mismatches at the Cas9 cleavage site and two mismatches anywhere in the viral target sequence significantly reduced the inhibitory effect. Accordingly, sequence analysis of viruses upon breakthrough replication revealed the acquisition of escape mutations in perfectly matching and most 1-nt mismatching targets, but not in targets with a mismatch at the Cas9 cleavage site or with two mismatches. These results demonstrate that combinatorial CRISPR-Cas9 treatment can cure T cells infected by distinct HIV-1 isolates, but even minor sequence variation in conserved viral target sites can affect the efficacy of this strategy. Successful cure attempts against isolates with divergent target sequences may therefore require adaptation of the gRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilles Darcis
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, 1105AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Infectious Diseases Department, Liège University Hospital, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
| | - Caroline S Binda
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, 1105AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Bep Klaver
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, 1105AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Elena Herrera-Carrillo
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, 1105AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Ben Berkhout
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, 1105AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Atze T Das
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, 1105AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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9
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Zhou Y, Zhang Y, He W, Wang J, Peng F, Huang L, Zhao S, Deng W. Rapid Regeneration and Reuse of Silica Columns from PCR Purification and Gel Extraction Kits. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12870. [PMID: 30150610 PMCID: PMC6110862 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30316-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Silica columns from PCR purification and gel extraction kits are widely used in laboratories worldwide to assist in gene cloning. However, the use of these columns can generate plastic waste that has an environmental impact due to their one-off design and massive consumption. Thus, it is important to develop a novel method that can reduce the utilization of silica columns but not affect research efficiency. In this study, various chemical and nonchemical reagents were used to eliminate residual DNA within used columns from PCR purification and gel extraction kits. We show that phosphoric acid is the most effective reagent among those tested to remove DNA contamination from used columns. Columns regenerated using 1 M phosphoric acid have a DNA purification capability that is comparable to that of fresh columns. We demonstrate that silica columns can be regenerated and reused a minimum of five times. The lab-made buffers are compatible with the regenerated columns for DNA purification, and DNA that is prepared with the regenerated columns can be used for gene cloning without affecting the gene cloning efficiency. Thus, the use of this novel method greatly reduces the production of laboratory waste and benefits numerous laboratories worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhou
- College of Life Science and Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- College of Life Science and Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, China
| | - Wei He
- College of Life Science and Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, China
| | - Juan Wang
- College of Life Science and Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, China
| | - Feixia Peng
- College of Life Science and Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, China
| | - Liyun Huang
- College of Life Science and Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, China
| | - Shasha Zhao
- College of Life Science and Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, China.
| | - Wensheng Deng
- College of Life Science and Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, China.
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10
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Kretova OV, Gorbacheva MA, Fedoseeva DM, Kravatsky YV, Chechetkin VR, Tchurikov NA. Mutation Frequencies in RNAi Targets in HIV-1 Genomes Obtained from Blood Plasma of Patients Receiving Anti-Retroviral Therapy. Mol Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026893318040118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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11
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Darcis G, Das AT, Berkhout B. Tackling HIV Persistence: Pharmacological versus CRISPR-Based Shock Strategies. Viruses 2018; 10:v10040157. [PMID: 29596334 PMCID: PMC5923451 DOI: 10.3390/v10040157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Jan Svoboda studied aspects of viral latency, in particular with respect to disease induction by avian RNA tumor viruses, which were later renamed as part of the extended retrovirus family. The course of retroviral pathogenesis is intrinsically linked to their unique property of integrating the DNA copy of the retroviral genome into that of the host cell, thus forming the provirus. Retroviral latency has recently become of major clinical interest to allow a better understanding of why we can effectively block the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in infected individuals with antiviral drugs, yet never reach a cure. We will discuss HIV-1 latency and its direct consequence—the formation of long-lasting HIV-1 reservoirs. We next focus on one of the most explored strategies in tackling HIV-1 reservoirs—the “shock and kill” strategy—which describes the broadly explored pharmacological way of kicking the latent provirus, with subsequent killing of the virus-producing cell by the immune system. We furthermore present how the clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and associated protein (Cas) system can be harnessed to reach the same objective by reactivating HIV-1 gene expression from latency. We will review the benefits and drawbacks of these different cure strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilles Darcis
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Infectious Diseases Department, Liège University Hospital, 4000 Liege, Belgium.
| | - Atze T Das
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Ben Berkhout
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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12
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Gaffke L, Pierzynowska K, Piotrowska E, Węgrzyn G. How close are we to therapies for Sanfilippo disease? Metab Brain Dis 2018; 33:1-10. [PMID: 28921412 PMCID: PMC5769821 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-017-0111-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Sanfilippo disease is one of mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS), a group of lysosomal storage diseases characterized by accumulation of partially degraded glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). It is classified as MPS type III, though it is caused by four different genetic defects, determining subtypes A, B, C and D. In each subtype of MPS III, the primary storage GAG is heparan sulfate (HS), but mutations leading to A, B, C, and D subtypes are located in genes coding for heparan N-sulfatase (the SGSH gene), α-N-acetylglucosaminidase (the NAGLU gene), acetyl-CoA:α-glucosaminide acetyltransferase (the HGSNAT gene), and N-acetylglucosamine-6-sulfatase (the GNS gene), respectively. Neurodegenerative changes in the central nervous system (CNS) are major problems in Sanfilippo disease. They cause severe cognitive disabilities and behavioral disturbances. This is the main reason of a current lack of therapeutic options for MPS III patients, while patients from some other MPS types (I, II, IVA, and VI) can be treated with enzyme replacement therapy or bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cell transplantations. Nevertheless, although no therapy is available for Sanfilippo disease now, recent years did bring important breakthroughs in this aspect, and clinical trials are being conducted with enzyme replacement therapy, gene therapy, and substrate reduction therapy. These recent achievements are summarized and discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidia Gaffke
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdańsk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Karolina Pierzynowska
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdańsk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Ewa Piotrowska
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdańsk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Węgrzyn
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdańsk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland.
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Attacking HIV-1 RNA versus DNA by sequence-specific approaches: RNAi versus CRISPR-Cas. Biochem Soc Trans 2016; 44:1355-1365. [DOI: 10.1042/bst20160060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Revised: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection can be effectively controlled by potent antiviral drugs, but this never results in a cure. The patient should therefore take these drugs for the rest of his/her life, which can cause drug-resistance and adverse effects. Therefore, more durable therapeutic strategies should be considered, such as a stable gene therapy to protect the target T cells against HIV-1 infection. The development of potent therapeutic regimens based on the RNA interference (RNAi) and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR-Cas) mechanisms will be described, which can be delivered by lentiviral vectors. These mechanisms attack different forms of the viral genome, the RNA and DNA, respectively, but both mechanisms act in a strictly sequence-specific manner. Early RNAi experiments demonstrated profound virus inhibition, but also indicated that viral escape is possible. Such therapy failure can be prevented by the design of a combinatorial RNAi attack on the virus and this gene therapy is currently being tested in a preclinical humanized mouse model. Recent CRISPR-Cas studies also document robust virus inhibition, but suggest a novel viral escape route that is induced by the cellular nonhomologous end joining DNA repair pathway, which is activated by CRISPR-Cas-induced DNA breaks. We will compare these two approaches for durable HIV-1 suppression and discuss the respective advantages and disadvantages. The potential for future clinical applications will be described.
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Pernet O, Yadav SS, An DS. Stem cell-based therapies for HIV/AIDS. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016; 103:187-201. [PMID: 27151309 PMCID: PMC4935568 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2016.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
One of the current focuses in HIV/AIDS research is to develop a novel therapeutic strategy that can provide a life-long remission of HIV/AIDS without daily drug treatment and, ultimately, a cure for HIV/AIDS. Hematopoietic stem cell-based anti-HIV gene therapy aims to reconstitute the patient immune system by transplantation of genetically engineered hematopoietic stem cells with anti-HIV genes. Hematopoietic stem cells can self-renew, proliferate and differentiate into mature immune cells. In theory, anti-HIV gene-modified hematopoietic stem cells can continuously provide HIV-resistant immune cells throughout the life of a patient. Therefore, hematopoietic stem cell-based anti-HIV gene therapy has a great potential to provide a life-long remission of HIV/AIDS by a single treatment. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the recent progress of developing anti-HIV genes, genetic modification of hematopoietic stem progenitor cells, engraftment and reconstitution of anti-HIV gene-modified immune cells, HIV inhibition in in vitro and in vivo animal models, and in human clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Pernet
- School of Nursing, University of California Los Angeles, 188 BSRB, 615 Charles E. Young Dr. South, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; UCLA AIDS Institute, 188 BSRB, 615 Charles E. Young Dr. South, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Swati Seth Yadav
- School of Nursing, University of California Los Angeles, 188 BSRB, 615 Charles E. Young Dr. South, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; UCLA AIDS Institute, 188 BSRB, 615 Charles E. Young Dr. South, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Dong Sung An
- School of Nursing, University of California Los Angeles, 188 BSRB, 615 Charles E. Young Dr. South, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; UCLA AIDS Institute, 188 BSRB, 615 Charles E. Young Dr. South, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Hematology-Oncology, The Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 188 BSRB, 615 Charles E. Young Dr. South, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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Nejati A, Shahmahmoodi S, Arefian E, Shoja Z, Marashi SM, Tabatabaie H, Mollaei-Kandelous Y, Soleimani M, Nategh R. Efficient inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus replication using novel modified microRNA-30a targeting 3'-untranslated region transcripts. Exp Ther Med 2016; 11:1833-1838. [PMID: 27168813 PMCID: PMC4840495 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2016.3121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA interference (RNAi)-based gene therapy is currently considered to be a combinatorial anti-human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) therapy. Although artificial polycistronic microRNAs (miRs) can reduce HIV-1 escape mutant variants, this approach may increase the risk of side effects. The present study aimed to optimize the efficiency of anti-HIV RNAi gene therapy in order to reduce the cell toxicity induced by multi-short hairpin RNA expression. An artificial miR-30a-3'-untranslated region (miR-3-UTR) obtained from a single RNA polymerase II was used to simultaneously target all viral transcripts. The results of the present study demonstrated that HIV-1 replication was significantly inhibited in the cells with the miR-3-UTR construct, suggesting that miR-3'-UTR may serve as a promising tool for RNAi-based gene therapy in the treatment of HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Nejati
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 14716-13151, Iran
| | - Shohreh Shahmahmoodi
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 14716-13151, Iran
| | - Ehsan Arefian
- Biotechnology Center, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran 14176-14411, Iran; Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, Stem Cell Technology Research Center, Tehran 19977-75555, Iran
| | - Zabihollah Shoja
- Virology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran 13169-43551, Iran
| | - Sayed-Mahdi Marashi
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 14716-13151, Iran
| | - Hamideh Tabatabaie
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 14716-13151, Iran
| | | | - Masoud Soleimani
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, Stem Cell Technology Research Center, Tehran 19977-75555, Iran; Department of Medical Physics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14117-13116, Iran
| | - Rakhshandeh Nategh
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 14716-13151, Iran
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18
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Fowler DK, Williams C, Gerritsen AT, Washbourne P. Improved knockdown from artificial microRNAs in an enhanced miR-155 backbone: a designer's guide to potent multi-target RNAi. Nucleic Acids Res 2015; 44:e48. [PMID: 26582923 PMCID: PMC4797272 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkv1246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Artificial microRNA (amiRNA) sequences embedded in natural microRNA (miRNA) backbones have proven to be useful tools for RNA interference (RNAi). amiRNAs have reduced off-target and toxic effects compared to other RNAi-based methods such as short-hairpin RNAs (shRNA). amiRNAs are often less effective for knockdown, however, compared to their shRNA counterparts. We screened a large empirically-designed amiRNA set in the synthetic inhibitory BIC/miR-155 RNA (SIBR) scaffold and show common structural and sequence-specific features associated with effective amiRNAs. We then introduced exogenous motifs into the basal stem region which increase amiRNA biogenesis and knockdown potency. We call this modified backbone the enhanced SIBR (eSIBR) scaffold. Using chained amiRNAs for multi-gene knockdown, we show that concatenation of miRNAs targeting different genes is itself sufficient for increased knockdown efficacy. Further, we show that eSIBR outperforms wild-type SIBR (wtSIBR) when amiRNAs are chained. Finally, we use a lentiviral expression system in cultured neurons, where we again find that eSIBR amiRNAs are more potent for multi-target knockdown of endogenous genes. eSIBR will be a valuable tool for RNAi approaches, especially for studies where knockdown of multiple targets is desired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel K Fowler
- Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
| | - Carly Williams
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
| | - Alida T Gerritsen
- Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
| | - Philip Washbourne
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
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Martínez Á, Fuentes-Paniagua E, Baeza A, Sánchez-Nieves J, Cicuéndez M, Gómez R, de la Mata FJ, González B, Vallet-Regí M. Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Decorated with Carbosilane Dendrons as New Non-viral Oligonucleotide Delivery Carriers. Chemistry 2015; 21:15651-66. [PMID: 26361378 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201501966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A novel nanosystem based on mesoporous silica nanoparticles covered with carbosilane dendrons grafted on the external surface of the nanoparticles is reported. This system is able to transport single-stranded oligonucleotide into cells, avoiding an electrostatic repulsion between the cell membrane and the negatively charged nucleic acids thanks to the cationic charge provided by the dendron coating under physiological conditions. Moreover, the presence of the highly ordered pore network inside the silica matrix would make possible to allocate other therapeutic agents within the mesopores with the aim of achieving a double delivery. First, carbosilane dendrons of second and third generation possessing ammonium or tertiary amine groups as peripheral functional groups were prepared. Hence, different strategies were tested in order to obtain their suitable grafting on the outer surface of the nanoparticles. As nucleic acid model, a single-stranded DNA oligonucleotide tagged with a fluorescent Cy3 moiety was used to evaluate the DNA adsorption capacity. The hybrid material functionalised with the third generation of a neutral dendron showed excellent DNA binding properties. Finally, the cytotoxicity as well as the capability to deliver DNA into cells, was tested in vitro by using a human osteoblast-like cell line, achieving good levels of internalisation of the vector DNA/carbosilane dendron-functionalised material without affecting the cellular viability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángel Martínez
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid (Spain).,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN) (Spain)
| | - Elena Fuentes-Paniagua
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Química Inorgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871 Alcalá de Henares (Spain).,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN) (Spain)
| | - Alejandro Baeza
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid (Spain).,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN) (Spain)
| | - Javier Sánchez-Nieves
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Química Inorgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871 Alcalá de Henares (Spain).,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN) (Spain)
| | - Mónica Cicuéndez
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid (Spain).,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN) (Spain)
| | - Rafael Gómez
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Química Inorgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871 Alcalá de Henares (Spain).,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN) (Spain)
| | - F Javier de la Mata
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Química Inorgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871 Alcalá de Henares (Spain). .,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN) (Spain).
| | - Blanca González
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid (Spain). .,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN) (Spain).
| | - María Vallet-Regí
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid (Spain). .,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN) (Spain).
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Herrera-Carrillo E, Berkhout B. Bone Marrow Gene Therapy for HIV/AIDS. Viruses 2015; 7:3910-36. [PMID: 26193303 PMCID: PMC4517133 DOI: 10.3390/v7072804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Revised: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone marrow gene therapy remains an attractive option for treating chronic immunological diseases, including acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This technology combines the differentiation and expansion capacity of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) with long-term expression of therapeutic transgenes using integrating vectors. In this review we summarize the potential of bone marrow gene therapy for the treatment of HIV/AIDS. A broad range of antiviral strategies are discussed, with a particular focus on RNA-based therapies. The idea is to develop a durable gene therapy that lasts the life span of the infected individual, thus contrasting with daily drug regimens to suppress the virus. Different approaches have been proposed to target either the virus or cellular genes encoding co-factors that support virus replication. Some of these therapies have been tested in clinical trials, providing proof of principle that gene therapy is a safe option for treating HIV/AIDS. In this review several topics are discussed, ranging from the selection of the antiviral molecule and the viral target to the optimal vector system for gene delivery and the setup of appropriate preclinical test systems. The molecular mechanisms used to formulate a cure for HIV infection are described, including the latest antiviral strategies and their therapeutic applications. Finally, a potent combination of anti-HIV genes based on our own research program is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Herrera-Carrillo
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1105 AZ, The Netherlands.
| | - Ben Berkhout
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1105 AZ, The Netherlands.
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Herrera-Carrillo E, Berkhout B. Gene therapy strategies to block HIV-1 replication by RNA interference. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2015; 848:71-95. [PMID: 25757616 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2432-5_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The cellular mechanism of RNA interference (RNAi) plays an antiviral role in many organisms and can be used for the development of therapeutic strategies against viral pathogens. Persistent infections like the one caused by the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) likely require a durable gene therapy approach. The continuous expression of the inhibitory RNA molecules in T cells is needed to effectively block HIV-1 replication. We discuss here several issues, ranging from the choice of RNAi inhibitor and vector system, finding the best target in the HIV-1 RNA genome, alternatively by targeting host mRNAs that encode important viral cofactors, to the setup of appropriate preclinical test systems. Finally, we briefly discuss the relevance of this topic for other viral pathogens that cause a chronic infection in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Herrera-Carrillo
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam, K3-110 Meibergdreef 15, Amsterdam, 1105 AS, The Netherlands
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