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Recuero Virto L, Czerwiński M, Froidevaux J. The determinants of legislation for radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) with the onset of 5G: An empirical analysis with a worldwide cross-sectional dataset. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2024; 44:2046-2088. [PMID: 38556257 DOI: 10.1111/risa.14298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
The unprecedented exposure of radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) to humans from mobile communications raises serious public concern about the possibility of unexpected adverse health effects and has stimulated authorities to adopt precautionary exposure limits. These limits are distinctly different across countries, and the causes of these differences are unclear from the literature. This article is the first empirical analysis on the determinants of RF-EMF exposure legislation, using a novel cross-sectional database of 164 countries worldwide. The analysis shows that decentralization and mobile competition in countries with low mobile network deployment tend to promote more stringent RF-EMF exposure limits across the dataset with 164 countries. In more decentralized countries, the regions had a greater influence on national legislation and could accommodate local demands with the advent of mobile technology in the 2000s. In contrast, decentralization and mobile competition in countries with high levels of mobile network deployment tend to relax RF-EMF exposure limits in the sample of 61 countries with fifth-generation (5G) technology. Indeed, restrictive RF-EMF exposure limits are constraining 5G deployment in a context of the widespread adoption of mobile-broadband technologies. These results should be useful for policymakers and mobile operators alike to anticipate the outcome of legislation in countries that have yet to introduce 5G technology. The results should also be useful when reviewing policies and strategies for the implementation of the upcoming 6G technology in frequency bands that will be increasingly higher (above 6 GHz up to THz for very local usage), and hence where the health effects on humans are less well studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Recuero Virto
- Léonard de Vinci Pôle Universitaire, Research Center, Paris La Défense, France
- Economics Departement, École polytechnique, Palaiseau, France
| | - Marek Czerwiński
- Department of Grassland and Natural Landscape Sciences, Poznań University of Life Sciences, ul. Dojazd, Poznań, Poland
| | - Jérémy Froidevaux
- Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
- Centre d'Ecologie et des Sciences de la Conservation, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
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2
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Manassas A, Apostolidis C, Iakovidis S, Babas D, Samaras T. A study of the long term changes in the electromagnetic environment using data from continuous monitoring sensors in Greece. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13784. [PMID: 37612387 PMCID: PMC10447458 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41034-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Owing to the advancement of wireless technologies, there is a strong public perception of increasing exposure to Radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF). The aim of this study is to determine the evolution of EMF in the environment, and consequently, human exposure to them, over a period of about two decades, spanning from the end of 2003 until February 2022. The study is based on data collected by two non-ionizing radiation monitoring networks in Greece. The networks consist of fixed EMF sensors that register the RMS electric field value every 6 min, on a 24 h basis. We used the Seasonal-Trend decomposition method using (LOESS), known as the STL method to decompose the time series into trend, seasonal, and noise components. Additionally, since the sensors include frequency filters for separating the cellular frequencies, the recorded data were used to identify the exposure contribution by cellular networks in comparison to other EMF sources. The study indicates that RF-EMF do not explicitly decrease or increase but rather fluctuate over time. Similarly, the contribution of mobile cellular networks to the total field change over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athanasios Manassas
- CIRI - Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001, Thermi, Greece.
| | - Christos Apostolidis
- CIRI - Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001, Thermi, Greece
| | - Serafeim Iakovidis
- CIRI - Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001, Thermi, Greece
| | - Dimitrios Babas
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Hansson Mild K, Mattsson MO, Jeschke P, Israel M, Ivanova M, Shalamanova T. Occupational Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields-Different from General Public Exposure and Laboratory Studies. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6552. [PMID: 37623138 PMCID: PMC10454245 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20166552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
The designs of in vivo, in vitro and in silico studies do not adequately reflect the characteristics of long-term occupational EMF exposure; the higher exposure levels permitted for employees are nevertheless extrapolated on this basis. Epidemiological studies consider occupational exposure only in a very general way, if at all. There is a lack of detailed descriptive data on long-term occupational exposure over the duration of the working life. Most studies reflect exposure characteristics of the general population, exposures which are long-term, but at a comparably low level. Occupational exposure is often intermittent with high peak power followed by periods with no exposure. Furthermore, the EU EMF-Directive 2013/35/EU states a demand for occupational health surveillance, the outcome of which would be of great help to epidemiologists studying the health effects of EMF exposure. This paper thus aims to outline and specify differences between public and occupational exposure and to increase the understanding of specific aspects of occupational exposure which are important for long-term health considerations. This could lead to a future protection concept against possible hazards based on adequate descriptions of long-term exposures and also include supplementary descriptive features such as a "reset time" of biological systems and accurate dose quantities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kjell Hansson Mild
- Department of Radiation Sciences, Radiation Physics, Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden;
| | - Mats-Olof Mattsson
- SciProof International AB, 83158 Östersund, Sweden
- Institute of Advanced Studies, Strömstad Academy, 45280 Strömstad, Sweden
| | - Peter Jeschke
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 44194 Dortmund, Germany;
| | - Michel Israel
- National Centre of Public Health and Analyses, 1431 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.I.); (M.I.); (T.S.)
| | - Mihaela Ivanova
- National Centre of Public Health and Analyses, 1431 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.I.); (M.I.); (T.S.)
| | - Tsvetelina Shalamanova
- National Centre of Public Health and Analyses, 1431 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.I.); (M.I.); (T.S.)
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Iakovidis S, Apostolidis C, Manassas A, Samaras T. Electromagnetic Fields Exposure Assessment in Europe Utilizing Publicly Available Data. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:8481. [PMID: 36366179 PMCID: PMC9654131 DOI: 10.3390/s22218481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The ever-increasing use of wireless communication systems during the last few decades has raised concerns about the potential health effects of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) on humans. Safety limits and exposure assessment methods were developed and are regularly updated to mitigate health risks. Continuous radiofrequency EMF monitoring networks and in situ measurement campaigns provide useful information about environmental EMF levels and their variations over time and in different microenvironments. In this study, published data from the five largest monitoring networks and from two extensive in situ measurement campaigns in different European countries were gathered and processed. Median electric field values for monitoring networks across different countries lay in the interval of 0.67-1.51 V/m. The median electric field value across different microenvironments, as evaluated from in situ measurements, varied from 0.10 V/m to 1.42 V/m. The differences between networks were identified and mainly attributed to variations in population density. No significant trends in the temporal evolution of EMF levels were observed. The influences of parameters such as population density, type of microenvironment, and height of measurement on EMF levels were investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serafeim Iakovidis
- CIRI—Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thermi, Greece
| | - Christos Apostolidis
- CIRI—Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thermi, Greece
| | - Athanasios Manassas
- CIRI—Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thermi, Greece
| | - Theodoros Samaras
- Radiocommunications Lab, Department of Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
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5
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Koppel T, Ahonen M, Carlberg M, Hardell L. Very high radiofrequency radiation at Skeppsbron in Stockholm, Sweden from mobile phone base station antennas positioned close to pedestrians' heads. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 208:112627. [PMID: 34995546 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In urban environment there is a constant increase of public exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields from mobile phone base stations. With the placement of mobile phone base station antennas radiofrequency hotspots emerge. This study investigates an area at Skeppsbron street in Stockholm, Sweden with an aggregation of base station antennas placed at low level close to pedestrians' heads. Detailed spatial distribution measurements were performed with 1) a radiofrequency broadband analyzer and 2) a portable exposimeter. The results display a greatly uneven distribution of the radiofrequency field with hotspots. The highest spatial average across all quadrat cells was 12.1 V m⁻1 (388 mW m⁻2), whereas the maximum recorded reading from the entire area was 31.6 V m⁻1 (2648 mW m⁻2). Exposimeter measurements show that the majority of exposure is due to mobile phone downlink bands. Most dominant are 2600 and 2100 MHz bands used by 4G and 3G mobile phone services, respectively. The average radiofrequency radiation values from the earlier studies show that the level of ambient RF radiation exposure in Stockholm is increasing. This study concluded that mobile phone base station antennas at Skeppsbron, Stockholm are examples of poor radiofrequency infrastructure design which brings upon highly elevated exposure levels to popular seaside promenade and a busy traffic street.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarmo Koppel
- Tallinn University of Technology, SOC353 Ehitajate tee 5, 19086, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Mikko Ahonen
- Päivölä Institute, Päivöläntie 52, Tarttila, 37770, Finland
| | - Michael Carlberg
- The Environment and Cancer Research Foundation, Studievägen 35, SE 702 17, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Lennart Hardell
- The Environment and Cancer Research Foundation, Studievägen 35, SE 702 17, Örebro, Sweden.
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Levitt BB, Lai HC, Manville AM. Effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields on flora and fauna, part 1. Rising ambient EMF levels in the environment. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2022; 37:81-122. [PMID: 34047144 DOI: 10.1515/reveh-2021-0026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ambient levels of electromagnetic fields (EMF) have risen sharply in the last 80 years, creating a novel energetic exposure that previously did not exist. Most recent decades have seen exponential increases in nearly all environments, including rural/remote areas and lower atmospheric regions. Because of unique physiologies, some species of flora and fauna are sensitive to exogenous EMF in ways that may surpass human reactivity. There is limited, but comprehensive, baseline data in the U.S. from the 1980s against which to compare significant new surveys from different countries. This now provides broader and more precise data on potential transient and chronic exposures to wildlife and habitats. Biological effects have been seen broadly across all taxa and frequencies at vanishingly low intensities comparable to today's ambient exposures. Broad wildlife effects have been seen on orientation and migration, food finding, reproduction, mating, nest and den building, territorial maintenance and defense, and longevity and survivorship. Cyto- and geno-toxic effects have been observed. The above issues are explored in three consecutive parts: Part 1 questions today's ambient EMF capabilities to adversely affect wildlife, with more urgency regarding 5G technologies. Part 2 explores natural and man-made fields, animal magnetoreception mechanisms, and pertinent studies to all wildlife kingdoms. Part 3 examines current exposure standards, applicable laws, and future directions. It is time to recognize ambient EMF as a novel form of pollution and develop rules at regulatory agencies that designate air as 'habitat' so EMF can be regulated like other pollutants. Wildlife loss is often unseen and undocumented until tipping points are reached. Long-term chronic low-level EMF exposure standards, which do not now exist, should be set accordingly for wildlife, and environmental laws should be strictly enforced.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Blake Levitt
- National Association of Science Writers, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Henry C Lai
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Albert M Manville
- Advanced Academic Programs, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, Environmental Sciences and Policy, Johns Hopkins University, Washington DC Campus, USA
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Radiofrequency Exposure Levels from Mobile Phone Base Stations in Outdoor Environments and an Underground Shopping Mall in Japan. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18158068. [PMID: 34360361 PMCID: PMC8345342 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18158068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Recent progress in wireless technologies has made human exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) increasingly complex. The situation can increase public concerns related to possible health effects due to EMF exposure. Monitoring EMF exposure levels and characterizing them are indispensable for risk communications of human exposure to EMFs. From this background, a project on the acquisition, accumulation, and applications of EMF exposure monitoring data in Japan was started in 2019. One of the objectives of this project is to obtain a comprehensive picture of EMF exposure in actual daily lives. In 2019 and 2020, we measured the electric field (E-field) strength from mainly mobile phone base stations in the same areas as those in measurements conducted in 2006 and 2007 by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC), Japan, and compared the data to investigate the time-course of the EMF environment. The number of measured points was 100 (10 × 10 grids) in an area of 1 km × 1 km in two urban and two suburban areas, and that in an underground shopping mall was 158. This large-scale study is the first in Japan. As a result, we found that the measured E-field strengths tended to be higher in 2019 and 2020 than those in 2006 and 2007, especially in the mall. However, the median ratios to the Japanese radio wave protection guideline values for urban areas and malls are lower than −40 dB.
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8
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Aris A, Yiannis K, Vasiliki S, Constantin K, Charilaos T, Kiki T. RF-EMF EXPOSURE LEVELS IN SENSITIVE LAND USE IN GREECE: EDUCATIONAL UNITS CENSUS IN THE MUNICIPALITY OF KORYDALLOS. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2020; 190:193-199. [PMID: 32667037 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncaa090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The growing popularity of mobile phones and the expansion of network infrastructure in Greece have raised concerns about the possible negative health effects on sensitive groups, such as children, from exposure to long-term radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs). AIMS The objective of this study is to estimate mean RF-EMF exposure levels of primary and secondary education schools located in the municipality of Korydallos, Athens, Greece. METHODS We performed measurements to all the schools units ($n=62$) in the region in order to calculate the mean value for RF-EMF exposure in the range of 27 MHz-3 GHz, which covers the whole spectrum of RF-EMF sources. RESULTS At the $97.5\%$ of schools found in Korydallos region, the exposure level is at least 2200 times below the Greek exposure limits. CONCLUSION The exposure levels in the locations tested are both below $60\%$ of the highest limit set by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection regarding school exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Aris
- Department of Medical Physics, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece, 38221
| | - K Yiannis
- Department of Medical Physics, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece, 38221
| | - S Vasiliki
- Department of Medical Physics, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece, 38221
| | - K Constantin
- Department of Medical Physics, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece, 38221
| | - T Charilaos
- Department of Medical Physics, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece, 38221
| | - T Kiki
- Department of Medical Physics, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece, 38221
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Bushberg JT, Chou CK, Foster KR, Kavet R, Maxson DP, Tell RA, Ziskin MC. IEEE Committee on Man and Radiation-COMAR Technical Information Statement: Health and Safety Issues Concerning Exposure of the General Public to Electromagnetic Energy from 5G Wireless Communications Networks. HEALTH PHYSICS 2020; 119:236-246. [PMID: 32576739 PMCID: PMC7337122 DOI: 10.1097/hp.0000000000001301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This COMAR Technical Information Statement (TIS) addresses health and safety issues concerning exposure of the general public to radiofrequency (RF) fields from 5G wireless communications networks, the expansion of which started on a large scale in 2018 to 2019. 5G technology can transmit much greater amounts of data at much higher speeds for a vastly expanded array of applications compared with preceding 2-4G systems; this is due, in part, to using the greater bandwidth available at much higher frequencies than those used by most existing networks. Although the 5G engineering standard may be deployed for operating networks currently using frequencies extending from 100s to 1,000s of MHz, it can also operate in the 10s of GHz where the wavelengths are 10 mm or less, the so-called millimeter wave (MMW) band. Until now, such fields were found in a limited number of applications (e.g., airport scanners, automotive collision avoidance systems, perimeter surveillance radar), but the rapid expansion of 5G will produce a more ubiquitous presence of MMW in the environment. While some 5G signals will originate from small antennas placed on existing base stations, most will be deployed with some key differences relative to typical transmissions from 2-4G base stations. Because MMW do not penetrate foliage and building materials as well as signals at lower frequencies, the networks will require "densification," the installation of many lower power transmitters (often called "small cells" located mainly on buildings and utility poles) to provide for effective indoor coverage. Also, "beamforming" antennas on some 5G systems will transmit one or more signals directed to individual users as they move about, thus limiting exposures to non-users. In this paper, COMAR notes the following perspectives to address concerns expressed about possible health effects of RF field exposure from 5G technology. First, unlike lower frequency fields, MMW do not penetrate beyond the outer skin layers and thus do not expose inner tissues to MMW. Second, current research indicates that overall levels of exposure to RF are unlikely to be significantly altered by 5G, and exposure will continue to originate mostly from the "uplink" signals from one's own device (as they do now). Third, exposure levels in publicly accessible spaces will remain well below exposure limits established by international guideline and standard setting organizations, including ICNIRP and IEEE. Finally, so long as exposures remain below established guidelines, the research results to date do not support a determination that adverse health effects are associated with RF exposures, including those from 5G systems. While it is acknowledged that the scientific literature on MMW biological effect research is more limited than that for lower frequencies, we also note that it is of mixed quality and stress that future research should use appropriate precautions to enhance validity. The authorship of this paper includes a physician/biologist, epidemiologist, engineers, and physical scientists working voluntarily and collaboratively on a consensus basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J T Bushberg
- Committee on Man and Radiation (COMAR), IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society
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Karastergios I, Gialofas A, Karabetsos E. NATIONAL OBSERVATORY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS: NATIONAL TELEMETRIC NETWORK FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH-FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN GREECE. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2020; 188:413-423. [PMID: 32022239 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncz301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
At the end of 2015, the operation of the National Observatory of Electromagnetic Fields (established in 2012) has started. The National Observatory of Electromagnetic Fields is a network of 500 fixed (480 broadband and 20 frequency selective) and 13 mobile (vehicle mounted frequency selective) measurement stations throughout Greece that continuously monitor the electromagnetic field levels from all kinds of antenna stations in the frequency range 100kHz-7GHz. The results of this national monitoring network, which is operated and controlled by the Greek Atomic Energy Commission (EEAE), are presented through an interactive web portal (https://paratiritirioemf.eeae.gr), in which data are constantly updated with the latest station measurements. This paper presents the operational aspects and the measurement results of the first 3 years of operation (2016-2018). The measurement results revealed that all values were well below the reference levels for general public exposure, as defined by the Greek legislation.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Karastergios
- Non Ionizing Radiation Office, Greek Atomic Energy Commission (EEAE), Patriarchou Grigoriou & Neapoleos, Agia Paraskevi, PO Box 60092, 15310 Athens, Greece
| | - A Gialofas
- Non Ionizing Radiation Office, Greek Atomic Energy Commission (EEAE), Patriarchou Grigoriou & Neapoleos, Agia Paraskevi, PO Box 60092, 15310 Athens, Greece
| | - E Karabetsos
- Non Ionizing Radiation Office, Greek Atomic Energy Commission (EEAE), Patriarchou Grigoriou & Neapoleos, Agia Paraskevi, PO Box 60092, 15310 Athens, Greece
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Kurnaz C, Mutlu M. Comprehensive radiofrequency electromagnetic field measurements and assessments: a city center example. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2020; 192:334. [PMID: 32382839 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-020-08312-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this study, radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) measurements were carried out between 2016 and 2018 in one the largest provinces of Turkey; measurement results are compared with the limit values determined by International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) and Turkey's Information and Communication Technologies Authority (ICTA). In the first stage of a three-phase evaluation, short-term RF-EMF measurements were conducted in 500 locations over a 2-year period. In the second stage, short-term RF-EMF measurement results were analyzed to determine selected locations for long-term RF-EMF measurements to be carried out, including variation of RF-EMF during the day. In the last stage, band selective measurements were taken and the main sources of RF-EMF in the environment were determined. Overall, RF-EMF values do not exceed the limits determined by ICNIRP and ICTA, and they are below levels that threaten public health. In the short-term RF-EMF measurements, RF-EMF levels doubled after fourth generation (4G) systems were introduced. In the long-term RF-EMF measurements, RF-EMF values in the day are 35.4% more than at night. The total measured RF-EMF within the city center is 99.3% base station sourced. Among the six main RF-EMF sources, the devices operating in UMTS2100 band have the most contribution to total RF-EMF of medium with 31.2%. Additionally, we found short-term average electric field strength data are best described by the "exponential distribution," while long-term RF-EMF measurement data is best described by the "Burr distribution."
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Affiliation(s)
- Cetin Kurnaz
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey.
| | - Mustafa Mutlu
- Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Ordu University, Ordu, Turkey
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12
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Kljajic D, Djuric N. Comparative analysis of EMF monitoring campaigns in the campus area of the University of Novi Sad. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:14735-14750. [PMID: 32052328 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-08008-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Following an increasing number of artificial electromagnetic field (EMF) sources in human surrounding, a number of research studies have been devoted to the issue of environmental EMF pollution. A particular attention has been attributed to the highly sensitive EMF zones, where people can stay for a longer period of time, which, among others, includes university campuses. Thus, the modern approach of long-term EMF monitoring has been established, carrying out cumulative field strength measurements at locations that are most visited by student population and university staff. The goal was to establish periodic and systematic EMF investigation over such highly sensitive areas, through a standardized procedure for EMF monitoring. In this paper, details about two EMF monitoring campaigns over the University of Novi Sad campus were presented, performing comparative analysis of their results. The obtained results revealed the increase (up to four times) of the cumulative field strength values, as well as the general population exposure, at specific locations. Between these two campaigns, the emergence of the new base station, as well as numerous Wi-Fi networks, was noticed in the campus. Consequently, the highest field strength values were acquired at two locations, most directly exposed to the main beams of base station's antennas, although all obtained values were at least five times lower than the minimal reference levels prescribed by the Serbian legislation. Even though such results are acceptable, the future monitoring campaigns should be planned, particularly since the installation of new EMF sources are expected in the campus of the University of Novi Sad.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragan Kljajic
- Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg D. Obradovica 6, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia.
| | - Nikola Djuric
- Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg D. Obradovica 6, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia
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van Wyk MJ, Visser JC, le Roux CW. MEASUREMENT OF EMF EXPOSURE AROUND SMALL CELL BASE STATION SITES. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2019; 184:211-215. [PMID: 30541117 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncy201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
As mobile network technologies and usage change, mobile network cells have become smaller to meet the increased demand for data throughput. Small cell base stations are frequently used as a mobile network deployment method and are predominantly installed to service areas with a high density of people and to cover a small geographical area. Various measurement programs of the electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure have been conducted around base stations in general and these results have been published. There is, however, little data available on the EMF exposure levels around small cells. A measurement program was conducted to perform EMF exposure measurements around small cell base station sites. Results are compared to the relevant safety guidelines and to available data for EMF exposure around base stations in general.
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Kurnaz C, Korunur Engiz B, Kose U. AN EMPIRICAL STUDY: THE IMPACT OF THE NUMBER OF USERS ON ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2018; 182:494-501. [PMID: 30007352 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncy107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
As a result of the drastic increase in the number of mobile device users, there is considerable public debate about possible health hazards especially due to base stations and Wi-Fi access points. For this reason, in this study the effects of the number of users in a base station and wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) access point on electric field strength (E) levels were investigated using real-time measurements. Two-stage E measurements were performed on Ondokuz Mayıs University's (OMU) Kurupelit Campus with a PMM-8053 and SRM-3006 electromagnetic field (EMF) meter. In the first stage, 24-h measurements were performed with PMM-8053 at the location where the maximum E was measured and from which the busiest times of the day were then determined. The relationship among band selective E values was assessed using the number of users per minute provided by three cellular system operators for the location. Upper and lower bounds of E according to the number of users were calculated, and then an empirical model that helps calculate the E of medium with 86% accuracy was proposed. In the second stage, the effect of the number of users in a Wi-Fi access point on E level was investigated. For this purpose, the measurement environment was set as including one Wi-Fi access point with needed measurement devices. The number of users was increased as per user per minute. The number of users was validated with the data obtained from OMU IT Department. Using the measurement result, a model with a 96% accuracy between the E value in the environment and the number of users accessing the Wi-Fi system is proposed. With the use of these models, E level in the medium can be determined without using any EMF meters, thus precautions can be taken to stay within regulatory limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cetin Kurnaz
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
| | - Begum Korunur Engiz
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
| | - Ugur Kose
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
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15
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Deatanyah P, Amoako JK, Abavare EKK, Menyeh A. ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH AND POWER AROUND SELECTED MOBILE BASE STATIONS. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2018; 179:383-390. [PMID: 29342305 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncx299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The analysis of channel power and electric field strength at various locations from mobile base stations using power sensor, spectrum analyzer and log-periodic antenna revealed maximum potential exposure between the range of 61.1 and 254.7 m. Generally, the potential exposure values ranged from 0.0717 to 0.8950 mW m-2 with a maximum deviation of 22.22%. GSM900 was found to be more pronounced than GSM1800 and UMTS2100. Though the results complied with ICNIRP reference levels with a wide margin of 0.01%, it was higher than some previous work and South African mean value of 0.16 mW m-2, agreed with similar work elsewhere but lower than a global average value of 0.730 mW m-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Deatanyah
- Health Physics and Instrumentation Centre, Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, PO Box LG 80, Accra, Ghana
| | - J K Amoako
- Health Physics and Instrumentation Centre, Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, PO Box LG 80, Accra, Ghana
| | - E K K Abavare
- Department of Physics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
| | - A Menyeh
- Department of Physics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
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16
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Kurnaz C, Korunur Engiz B, Bozkurt MC. MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION OF ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH LEVELS IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN A PILOT REGION. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2018; 179:282-290. [PMID: 29237074 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncx275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In this study, in order to evaluate the exposed radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) levels, and to control their compliance with the limits determined by International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), extensive short-term/band-selective and long-term RF-EMF measurements were conducted at 92 primary and secondary schools in the Ilkadım district of Samsun/Turkey. The measurements were performed once each in May, June, October and December in 2016, using the PMM-8053 EMF meter. It was seen from the measurement results that the maximum average electric field strength (Eavg) was recorded, 2.34 V/m, in October, when students were at school. It was concluded from the measurement results that the measured Eavg levels recorded at 92 schools were below the limits determined by ICNIRP. According to the band-selective measurement results performed using a Narda SRM-3006 EMF meter, the five main electric field strength (E) sources that had the most contribution in total E were LTE800, GSM900, GSM1800, UMTS2100 and WLAN services. With the use of these main E sources, an empirical model was then proposed that helps to determine the total E with 99.6% accuracy. It was also concluded from the long-term broadband measurement result that the number of active users affected the total E in the medium directly, and that the measured E levels were significantly higher in daytime than those of recorded in night-time. In the final stage of the study, all measurement results were transferred on scaled color maps. The use of these maps helped to determine and maintain control on the levels of RF-EMF exposure at schools using, or intending to install, such systems, and also to take measures for future precautions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cetin Kurnaz
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
| | - Begum Korunur Engiz
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
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17
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Sagar S, Dongus S, Schoeni A, Roser K, Eeftens M, Struchen B, Foerster M, Meier N, Adem S, Röösli M. Radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure in everyday microenvironments in Europe: A systematic literature review. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2018; 28:147-160. [PMID: 28766560 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2017.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/07/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The impact of the introduction and advancement in communication technology in recent years on exposure level of the population is largely unknown. The main aim of this study is to systematically review literature on the distribution of radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in the everyday environment in Europe and summarize key characteristics of various types of RF-EMF studies conducted in the European countries. We systematically searched the ISI Web of Science for relevant literature published between 1 January 2000 and 30 April 2015, which assessed RF-EMF exposure levels by any of the methods: spot measurements, personal measurement with trained researchers and personal measurement with volunteers. Twenty-one published studies met our eligibility criteria of which 10 were spot measurements studies, 5 were personal measurement studies with trained researchers (microenvironmental), 5 were personal measurement studies with volunteers and 1 was a mixed methods study combining data collected by volunteers and trained researchers. RF-EMF data included in the studies were collected between 2005 and 2013. The mean total RF-EMF exposure for spot measurements in European "Homes" and "Outdoor" microenvironments was 0.29 and 0.54 V/m, respectively. In the personal measurements studies with trained researchers, the mean total RF-EMF exposure was 0.24 V/m in "Home" and 0.76 V/m in "Outdoor". In the personal measurement studies with volunteers, the population weighted mean total RF-EMF exposure was 0.16 V/m in "Homes" and 0.20 V/m in "Outdoor". Among all European microenvironments in "Transportation", the highest mean total RF-EMF 1.96 V/m was found in trains of Belgium during 2007 where more than 95% of exposure was contributed by uplink. Typical RF-EMF exposure levels are substantially below regulatory limits. We found considerable differences between studies according to the type of measurements procedures, which precludes cross-country comparison or evaluating temporal trends. A comparable RF-EMF monitoring concept is needed to accurately identify typical RF-EMF exposure levels in the everyday environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Sagar
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Dongus
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Anna Schoeni
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Katharina Roser
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Milena Foerster
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Noëmi Meier
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University Children's Hospital Basel, Spitalstrasse 33, Basel 4056, Switzerland
| | - Seid Adem
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Martin Röösli
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
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18
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Aerts S, Wiart J, Martens L, Joseph W. Assessment of long-term spatio-temporal radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2018; 161:136-143. [PMID: 29145005 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Revised: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
As both the environment and telecommunications networks are inherently dynamic, our exposure to environmental radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF) at an arbitrary location is not at all constant in time. In this study, more than a year's worth of measurement data collected in a fixed low-cost exposimeter network distributed over an urban environment was analysed and used to build, for the first time, a full spatio-temporal surrogate model of outdoor exposure to downlink Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) signals. Though no global trend was discovered over the measuring period, the difference in measured exposure between two instances could reach up to 42dB (a factor 12,000 in power density). Furthermore, it was found that, taking into account the hour and day of the measurement, the accuracy of the surrogate model in the area under study was improved by up to 50% compared to models that neglect the daily temporal variability of the RF signals. However, further study is required to assess the extent to which the results obtained in the considered environment can be extrapolated to other geographic locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Aerts
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/imec, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Joe Wiart
- Institut Mines-Telecom Telecom ParisTech, LTCI, Chaire C2m, Paris, France
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/imec, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/imec, Ghent, Belgium
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19
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Sienkiewicz Z, Calderón C, Broom KA, Addison D, Gavard A, Lundberg L, Maslanyj M. Are Exposures to Multiple Frequencies the Key to Future Radiofrequency Research? Front Public Health 2017; 5:328. [PMID: 29276705 PMCID: PMC5727023 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2017.00328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an extensive literature investigating possible effects of exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields associated with mobile phone technologies. This has not identified any public health risks with any degree of certainty. Some epidemiological studies have observed associations between heavy users of mobile phones and some types of cancer, but animal studies do not support this association, although a few studies have reported increased tumor yields. However, there is a crucial difference between epidemiology studies and laboratory work in terms of signals investigated: most people are exposed to a complex mixture of frequencies and signals at varying intensities, whereas the majority of animal studies have been performed using a single frequency or intensity. Whether this might explain the differences in outcome will be discussed, and whether there is a need for additional laboratory investigations that reproduce more accurately realistic exposure conditions will be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zenon Sienkiewicz
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, United Kingdom
| | - Carolina Calderón
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, United Kingdom
| | - Kerry A Broom
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, United Kingdom
| | - Darren Addison
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, United Kingdom
| | - Amélie Gavard
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, United Kingdom
| | - Louise Lundberg
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, United Kingdom
| | - Myron Maslanyj
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, United Kingdom
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20
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Engiz BK, Kurnaz C. LONG-TERM ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT FOR A SHOPPING MALL. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2017; 175:321-329. [PMID: 27885087 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncw343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
As a result of the dense deployment of wireless devices and base stations, measuring and evaluating the electromagnetic (EM) exposure levels they emit have become important to human health especially if they exceed the limits defined in the standards. Base stations, Wi-Fi equipment and other electronic devices are used heavily, especially in densely crowded places like shopping centers. In this study, electric field strength (E) measurements were conducted at one of the largest shopping malls in Turkey. Broadband E measurements were performed using PMM 8053 EM field strength meter for 24 h a day for the duration of one week while frequency selective measurements were carried out with SRM-3006 EM field strength meter. It is concluded from the measurements that the mean measured total E in the band between 100 kHz and 3 GHz is 0.59 V/m while the maximum E is 7.88 V/m, which are both below the limit determined by International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. Evolutions show that E can increase by up to 55% during the daytime. Analyses demonstrate that 71.3% of total E is caused by UMTS2100, 16.3% is produced by GSM900, 6.2% by LTE, 3.5% by Wi-Fi, and 2.7% is generated by devices that use the remaining frequency bands. Based on the detailed statistical analysis of long-term E measurement results, it can be concluded that the measured E levels are not in normal distribution and that they are statistically different with respect to days. Furthermore, distribution of E can be best modeled with the non-parametric approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Begum Korunur Engiz
- Ondokuz Mayis University, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Samsun , Turkey
| | - Cetin Kurnaz
- Ondokuz Mayis University, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Samsun , Turkey
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21
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A Technical Approach to the Evaluation of Radiofrequency Radiation Emissions from Mobile Telephony Base Stations. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2017; 14:ijerph14030244. [PMID: 28257069 PMCID: PMC5369080 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14030244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Revised: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
During the last two decades, the number of macrocell mobile telephony base station antennas emitting radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic radiation (EMR) in residential areas has increased significantly, and therefore much more attention is being paid to RF EMR and its effects on human health. Scientific field measurements of public exposure to RF EMR (specifically to radio frequency radiation) from macrocell mobile telephony base station antennas and RF electromagnetic field (EMF) intensity parameters in the environment are discussed in this article. The research methodology is applied according to the requirements of safety norms and Lithuanian Standards in English (LST EN). The article presents and analyses RF EMFs generated by mobile telephony base station antennas in areas accessible to the general public. Measurements of the RF electric field strength and RF EMF power density were conducted in the near- and far-fields of the mobile telephony base station antenna. Broadband and frequency-selective measurements were performed outside (on the roof and on the ground) and in a residential area. The tests performed on the roof in front of the mobile telephony base station antennas in the near-field revealed the presence of a dynamic energy interaction within the antenna electric field, which changes rapidly with distance. The RF EMF power density values on the ground at distances of 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 m from the base station are very low and are scattered within intervals of 0.002 to 0.05 μW/cm2. The results were compared with international exposure guidelines (ICNIRP).
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Bhatt CR, Thielens A, Billah B, Redmayne M, Abramson MJ, Sim MR, Vermeulen R, Martens L, Joseph W, Benke G. Assessment of personal exposure from radiofrequency-electromagnetic fields in Australia and Belgium using on-body calibrated exposimeters. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2016; 151:547-563. [PMID: 27588949 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2016.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The purposes of this study were: i) to demonstrate the assessment of personal exposure from various RF-EMF sources across different microenvironments in Australia and Belgium, with two on-body calibrated exposimeters, in contrast to earlier studies which employed single, non-on-body calibrated exposimeters; ii) to systematically evaluate the performance of the exposimeters using (on-body) calibration and cross-talk measurements; and iii) to compare the exposure levels measured for one site in each of several selected microenvironments in the two countries. A human subject took part in an on-body calibration of the exposimeter in an anechoic chamber. The same subject collected data on personal exposures across 38 microenvironments (19 in each country) situated in urban, suburban and rural regions. Median personal RF-EMF exposures were estimated: i) of all microenvironments, and ii) across each microenvironment, in two countries. The exposures were then compared across similar microenvironments in two countries (17 in each country). The three highest median total exposure levels were: city center (4.33V/m), residential outdoor (urban) (0.75V/m), and a park (0.75V/m) [Australia]; and a tram station (1.95V/m), city center (0.95V/m), and a park (0.90V/m) [Belgium]. The exposures across nine microenvironments in Melbourne, Australia were lower than the exposures across corresponding microenvironments in Ghent, Belgium (p<0.05). The personal exposures across urban microenvironments were higher than those for rural or suburban microenvironments. Similarly, the exposure levels across outdoor microenvironments were higher than those for indoor microenvironments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Technologiepark - Zwijnaarde 15, Ghent B-9052, Belgium.
| | - Baki Billah
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Mary Redmayne
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Malcolm R Sim
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands; Julius Centre for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Imperial College, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Technologiepark - Zwijnaarde 15, Ghent B-9052, Belgium.
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Technologiepark - Zwijnaarde 15, Ghent B-9052, Belgium.
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
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23
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Hardell L, Koppel T, Carlberg M, Ahonen M, Hedendahl L. Radiofrequency radiation at Stockholm Central Railway Station in Sweden and some medical aspects on public exposure to RF fields. Int J Oncol 2016; 49:1315-1324. [PMID: 27633090 PMCID: PMC5021254 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2016.3657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The Stockholm Central Railway Station in Sweden was investigated for public radiofrequency (RF) radiation exposure. The exposimeter EME Spy 200 was used to collect the RF exposure data across the railway station. The exposimeter covers 20 different radiofrequency bands from 88 to 5,850 MHz. In total 1,669 data points were recorded. The median value for total exposure was 921 µW/m2 (or 0.092 µW/cm2; 1 µW/m2=0.0001 µW/cm2) with some outliers over 95,544 µW/m2 (6 V/m, upper detection limit). The mean total RF radiation level varied between 2,817 to 4,891 µW/m2 for each walking round. High mean measurements were obtained for GSM + UMTS 900 downlink varying between 1,165 and 2,075 µW/m2. High levels were also obtained for UMTS 2100 downlink; 442 to 1,632 µW/m2. Also LTE 800 downlink, GSM 1800 downlink, and LTE 2600 downlink were in the higher range of measurements. Hot spots were identified, for example close to a wall mounted base station yielding over 95,544 µW/m2 and thus exceeding the exposimeter's detection limit. Almost all of the total measured levels were above the precautionary target level of 3-6 µW/m2 as proposed by the BioInitiative Working Group in 2012. That target level was one-tenth of the scientific benchmark providing a safety margin either for children, or chronic exposure conditions. We compare the levels of RF radiation exposures identified in the present study to published scientific results reporting adverse biological effects and health harm at levels equivalent to, or below those measured in this Stockholm Central Railway Station project. It should be noted that these RF radiation levels give transient exposure, since people are generally passing through the areas tested, except for subsets of people who are there for hours each day of work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lennart Hardell
- Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE-701 82 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Tarmo Koppel
- Department of Labour Environment and Safety Tallinn University of Technology, SCO351 Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia, Sweden
| | - Michael Carlberg
- Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE-701 82 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Mikko Ahonen
- Institute of Environmental Health and Safety, 11615 Tallinn, Estonia, Sweden
| | - Lena Hedendahl
- Independent Environment and Health Research Luleå, SE-972 53 Luleå, Sweden
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24
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Bhatt CR, Thielens A, Redmayne M, Abramson MJ, Billah B, Sim MR, Vermeulen R, Martens L, Joseph W, Benke G. Measuring personal exposure from 900MHz mobile phone base stations in Australia and Belgium using a novel personal distributed exposimeter. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 92-93:388-97. [PMID: 27136346 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.03.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The aims of this study were to: i) measure personal exposure in the Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) 900MHz downlink (DL) frequency band with two systems of exposimeters, a personal distributed exposimeter (PDE) and a pair of ExpoM-RFs, ii) compare the GSM 900MHz DL exposures across various microenvironments in Australia and Belgium, and iii) evaluate the correlation between the PDE and ExpoM-RFs measurements. Personal exposure data were collected using the PDE and two ExpoM-RFs simultaneously across 34 microenvironments (17 each in Australia and Belgium) located in urban, suburban and rural areas. Summary statistics of the electric field strengths (V/m) were computed and compared across similar microenvironments in Australia and Belgium. The personal exposures across urban microenvironments were higher than those in the rural or suburban microenvironments. Likewise, the exposure levels across the outdoor were higher than those for indoor microenvironments. The five highest median exposure levels were: city centre (0.248V/m), bus (0.124V/m), railway station (0.105V/m), mountain/forest (rural) (0.057V/m), and train (0.055V/m) [Australia]; and bicycle (urban) (0.238V/m), tram station (0.238V/m), city centre (0.156V/m), residential outdoor (urban) (0.139V/m) and park (0.124V/m) [Belgium]. Exposures in the GSM900 MHz frequency band across most of the microenvironments in Australia were significantly lower than the exposures across the microenvironments in Belgium. Overall correlations between the PDE and the ExpoM-RFs measurements were high. The measured exposure levels were far below the general public reference levels recommended in the guidelines of the ICNIRP and the ARPANSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Gaston Crommenlaan 8 Box 201, Ghent B-9050, Belgium.
| | - Mary Redmayne
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Baki Billah
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Malcolm R Sim
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands; Julius Centre for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Imperial College, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Gaston Crommenlaan 8 Box 201, Ghent B-9050, Belgium.
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Gaston Crommenlaan 8 Box 201, Ghent B-9050, Belgium.
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
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25
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Rowley JT, Joyner KH. Observations from national Italian fixed radiofrequency monitoring network. Bioelectromagnetics 2016; 37:136-9. [DOI: 10.1002/bem.21958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Djuric N, Kljajic D, Kasas-Lazetic K, Bajovic V. The SEMONT continuous monitoring of daily EMF exposure in an open area environment. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2015; 187:191. [PMID: 25787169 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-015-4395-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Wireless networks traffic has experienced a considerable growth in recent years. Likewise, it is to be expected that billions of objects will be connected to the Internet in years to come, many of them wirelessly. Such increase in a number of wireless connections and the inevitability of wireless communications in proximity of users highlight the healthcare concern on electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure. Thus, the intelligent monitoring systems, such as the Serbian Electromagnetic Field Monitoring Network-SEMONT-have been required to be developed and utilized for continuous and real-time EMF monitoring, as well as for the assessment of the potential in situ daily exposure of population. This paper presents the results of the SEMONT initial campaign of continuous monitoring of the high-frequency electric field strength over the campus of the University of Novi Sad, as an open area environment. Several locations, most frequently visited by the student population in their everyday activities, have been monitored during the rush hour in order to determine the fluctuation of daily exposure on this, usually considered, highly sensitive area. The results of monitoring suggest that potential exposure is far below the allowable limit, regarding reference levels prescribed by the Serbian legislation for the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Djuric
- Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg D. Obradovica 6, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia,
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27
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Christopoulou M, Karabetsos E. In situ measurements of radiofrequency exposure levels in Greece from 2008 to 2013: A multi-parametric annual analysis. Bioelectromagnetics 2015; 36:325-9. [DOI: 10.1002/bem.21902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Christopoulou
- Non Ionizing Radiation Office; Greek Atomic Energy Commission (EEAE); Agia Paraskevi Greece
| | - Efthymios Karabetsos
- Non Ionizing Radiation Office; Greek Atomic Energy Commission (EEAE); Agia Paraskevi Greece
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28
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Gajšek P, Ravazzani P, Wiart J, Grellier J, Samaras T, Thuróczy G. Electromagnetic field exposure assessment in Europe radiofrequency fields (10 MHz-6 GHz). JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2015; 25:37-44. [PMID: 23942394 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2013.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2013] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Average levels of exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) of the general public in Europe are difficult to summarize, as exposure levels have been reported differently in those studies in which they have been measured, and a large proportion of reported measurements were very low, sometimes falling below detection limits of the equipment used. The goal of this paper is to present an overview of the scientific literature on RF EMF exposure in Europe and to characterize exposure within the European population. A comparative analysis of the results of spot or long-term RF EMF measurements in the EU indicated that mean electric field strengths were between 0.08 V/m and 1.8 V/m. The overwhelming majority of measured mean electric field strengths were <1 V/m. It is estimated that <1% were above 6 V/m and <0.1% were above 20 V/m. No exposure levels exceeding European Council recommendations were identified in these surveys. Most population exposures from signals of radio and television broadcast towers were observed to be weak because these transmitters are usually far away from exposed individuals and are spatially sparsely distributed. On the other hand, the contribution made to RF exposure from wireless telecommunications technology is continuously increasing and its contribution was above 60% of the total exposure. According to the European exposure assessment studies identified, three population exposure categories (intermittent variable partial body exposure, intermittent variable low-level whole-body (WB) exposure and continuous low-level WB exposure) were recognized by the authors as informative for possible future risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Gajšek
- Institute of Non-Ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Paolo Ravazzani
- CNR Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Ingegneria Biomedica, Milano, Italy
| | | | - James Grellier
- 1] Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), PRBB, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Theodoros Samaras
- Department of Physics, Aristotle, University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - György Thuróczy
- National Research Institute for Radiobiology and Radiohygiene, Budapest, Hungary
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29
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Tell RA, Kavet R. A survey of the urban radiofrequency (RF) environment. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2014; 162:499-507. [PMID: 24567499 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncu021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In 1980, Tell and Mantiply published a study of radiofrequency (RF) fields measured across 15 major metropolitan areas in the USA. They required a van fully equipped with instrumentation and computing capability for their measurements. This study aimed to assess whether and how hand-held instrumentation available today would facilitate and enhance the efficiency of large-scale surveys of ambient RF fields. In addition, the data would provide a suggestion as to how the profile of ambient RF fields has changed with respect to frequency content and magnitude. Not unexpectedly, the relative power densities were orders of magnitude lower than the Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) maximum permissible exposure (MPE) for the general public, with a maximum time-averaged value across the VHF-FM-UHF-cellular bands of 0.12 % of the MPE (AM's contribution was negligible). In both the 1980 and the present study, the power density in the FM band was a major contributor to overall power density, but over time, power densities in the VHF and UHF band decreased and increased, respectively. From the perspective of absolute power density, the wideband values in the 1980 study, this study and any number of assessments conducted in European nations are not generally different from one another.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Tell
- Richard Tell Associates, Inc., 350 Falcon Ridge Parkway, Mesquite, NV 89027
| | - Robert Kavet
- Electric Power Research Institute, 3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
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Urbinello D, Joseph W, Verloock L, Martens L, Röösli M. Temporal trends of radio-frequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in everyday environments across European cities. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2014; 134:134-142. [PMID: 25127524 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2014.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Revised: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/06/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The rapid development and increased use of wireless telecommunication technologies led to a substantial change of radio-frequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in the general population but little is known about temporal trends of RF-EMF in our everyday environment. OBJECTIVES The objective of our study is to evaluate temporal trends of RF-EMF exposure levels in different microenvironments of three European cities using a common measurement protocol. METHODS We performed measurements in the cities of Basel (Switzerland), Ghent and Brussels (Belgium) during one year, between April 2011 and March 2012. RF-EMF exposure in 11 different frequency bands ranging from FM (Frequency Modulation, 88 MHz) to WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network, 2.5 GHz) was quantified with portable measurement devices (exposimeters) in various microenvironments: outdoor areas (residential areas, downtown and suburb), public transports (train, bus and tram or metro rides) and indoor places (airport, railway station and shopping centers). Measurements were collected every 4s during 10-50 min per environment and measurement day. Linear temporal trends were analyzed by mixed linear regression models. RESULTS Highest total RF-EMF exposure levels occurred in public transports (all public transports combined) with arithmetic mean values of 0.84 V/m in Brussels, 0.72 V/m in Ghent, and 0.59 V/m in Basel. In all outdoor areas combined, mean exposure levels were 0.41 V/m in Brussels, 0.31 V/m in Ghent and 0.26 V/m in Basel. Within one year, total RF-EMF exposure levels in all outdoor areas in combination increased by 57.1% (p<0.001) in Basel by 20.1% in Ghent (p=0.053) and by 38.2% (p=0.012) in Brussels. Exposure increase was most consistently observed in outdoor areas due to emissions from mobile phone base stations. In public transports RF-EMF levels tended also to increase but mostly without statistical significance. DISCUSSION An increase of RF-EMF exposure levels has been observed between April 2011 and March 2012 in various microenvironments of three European cities. Nevertheless, exposure levels were still far below regulatory limits of each country. A continuous monitoring is needed to identify high exposure areas and to anticipate critical development of RF-EMF exposure at public places.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damiano Urbinello
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Gaston Crommenlaan 8, B-9050 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Gaston Crommenlaan 8, B-9050 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Leen Verloock
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Gaston Crommenlaan 8, B-9050 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Gaston Crommenlaan 8, B-9050 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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Dürrenberger G, Fröhlich J, Röösli M, Mattsson MO. EMF monitoring-concepts, activities, gaps and options. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2014; 11:9460-79. [PMID: 25216256 PMCID: PMC4199029 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph110909460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF) is a cause of concern for many people. The topic will likely remain for the foreseeable future on the scientific and political agenda, since emissions continue to change in characteristics and levels due to new infrastructure deployments, smart environments and novel wireless devices. Until now, systematic and coordinated efforts to monitor EMF exposure are rare. Furthermore, virtually nothing is known about personal exposure levels. This lack of knowledge is detrimental for any evidence-based risk, exposure and health policy, management and communication. The main objective of the paper is to review the current state of EMF exposure monitoring activities in Europe, to comment on the scientific challenges and deficiencies, and to describe appropriate strategies and tools for EMF exposure assessment and monitoring to be used to support epidemiological health research and to help policy makers, administrators, industry and consumer representatives to base their decisions and communication activities on facts and data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregor Dürrenberger
- Swiss Research Foundation for Electricity and Mobile Communication, c/o Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH Zürich), Gloriastrasse 35, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Jürg Fröhlich
- Institute for Electromagnetic Fields, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH Zürich), Gloriastrasse 35, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), Socinstrasse 59, Postfach, 4002 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Mats-Olof Mattsson
- Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT), Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
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32
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Estenberg J, Augustsson T. Extensive frequency selective measurements of radiofrequency fields in outdoor environments performed with a novel mobile monitoring system. Bioelectromagnetics 2013; 35:227-30. [DOI: 10.1002/bem.21830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Mahfouz Z, Verloock L, Joseph W, Tanghe E, Gati A, Wiart J, Lautru D, Hanna VF, Martens L. Comparison of temporal realistic telecommunication base station exposure with worst-case estimation in two countries. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2013; 157:331-338. [PMID: 23771956 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/nct155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The influence of temporal daily exposure to global system for mobile communications (GSM) and universal mobile telecommunications systems and high speed downlink packet access (UMTS-HSDPA) is investigated using spectrum analyser measurements in two countries, France and Belgium. Temporal variations and traffic distributions are investigated. Three different methods to estimate maximal electric-field exposure are compared. The maximal realistic (99 %) and the maximal theoretical extrapolation factor used to extrapolate the measured broadcast control channel (BCCH) for GSM and the common pilot channel (CPICH) for UMTS are presented and compared for the first time in the two countries. Similar conclusions are found in the two countries for both urban and rural areas: worst-case exposure assessment overestimates realistic maximal exposure up to 5.7 dB for the considered example. In France, the values are the highest, because of the higher population density. The results for the maximal realistic extrapolation factor at the weekdays are similar to those from weekend days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaher Mahfouz
- Orange Labs, France Télécom Division R&D, RESA/WASA 38-40, rue Général Leclerc 92794, Issy Les Moulineaux, France
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Aerts S, Deschrijver D, Verloock L, Dhaene T, Martens L, Joseph W. Assessment of outdoor radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure through hotspot localization using kriging-based sequential sampling. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2013; 126:184-191. [PMID: 23759207 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2013.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2013] [Revised: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a novel methodology is proposed to create heat maps that accurately pinpoint the outdoor locations with elevated exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) in an extensive urban region (or, hotspots), and that would allow local authorities and epidemiologists to efficiently assess the locations and spectral composition of these hotspots, while at the same time developing a global picture of the exposure in the area. Moreover, no prior knowledge about the presence of radiofrequency radiation sources (e.g., base station parameters) is required. After building a surrogate model from the available data using kriging, the proposed method makes use of an iterative sampling strategy that selects new measurement locations at spots which are deemed to contain the most valuable information-inside hotspots or in search of them-based on the prediction uncertainty of the model. The method was tested and validated in an urban subarea of Ghent, Belgium with a size of approximately 1 km2. In total, 600 input and 50 validation measurements were performed using a broadband probe. Five hotspots were discovered and assessed, with maximum total electric-field strengths ranging from 1.3 to 3.1 V/m, satisfying the reference levels issued by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection for exposure of the general public to RF-EMF. Spectrum analyzer measurements in these hotspots revealed five radiofrequency signals with a relevant contribution to the exposure. The radiofrequency radiation emitted by 900 MHz Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) base stations was always dominant, with contributions ranging from 45% to 100%. Finally, validation of the subsequent surrogate models shows high prediction accuracy, with the final model featuring an average relative error of less than 2dB (factor 1.26 in electric-field strength), a correlation coefficient of 0.7, and a specificity of 0.96.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Aerts
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Gaston Crommenlaan 8, Box 201, B-9050 Ghent, Belgium.
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35
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Joyner KH, Van Wyk MJ, Rowley JT. National surveys of radiofrequency field strengths from radio base stations in Africa. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2013; 158:251-262. [PMID: 24044904 PMCID: PMC3913124 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/nct222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Revised: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The authors analysed almost 260 000 measurement points from surveys of radiofrequency (RF) field strengths near radio base stations in seven African countries over two time frames from 2001 to 2003 and 2006 to 2012. The results of the national surveys were compared, chronological trends investigated and potential exposures compared by technology and with frequency modulation (FM) radio. The key findings from thes data are that irrespective of country, the year and mobile technology, RF fields at a ground level were only a small fraction of the international human RF exposure recommendations. Importantly, there has been no significant increase in typical measured levels since the introduction of 3G services. The mean levels in these African countries are similar to the reported levels for countries of Asia, Europe and North America using similar mobile technologies. The median level for the FM services in South Africa was comparable to the individual but generally lower than the combined mobile services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken H. Joyner
- Joyner & Associates Pty Ltd, 34 Barrow Drive, Heathmont,VIC 3135, Australia
| | | | - Jack T. Rowley
- GSM Association, 7th Floor, 5 New Street Square, London EC4A 3BF, UK
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36
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Alhekail ZO, Hadi MA, Alkanhal MA. Public safety assessment of electromagnetic radiation exposure from mobile base stations. JOURNAL OF RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION 2012; 32:325-337. [PMID: 22854221 DOI: 10.1088/0952-4746/32/3/325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Exposure of the general public to electromagnetic radiation originating from randomly selected GSM/WCDMA base stations in Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been assessed in the context of the International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) guidelines. The purpose of the measurement was to record the maximum power density of signals to estimate possible worst case exposure at each measurement location. These power density measurements were carried out at 60 mobile base stations located in different regions of the city. For each of these sites, three sectors were operational, yielding a total of 180 sectors. Two positions were identified per site with the greatest power density values. Exposures from these base stations were generally found to be in the range of 0.313 to 0.00000149% of the ICNIRP general public reference level, and the greatest exposure near any of the base stations was 21.96 mW m(-2) for a wideband measurement in the 75-3000 MHz frequency range. Analysis of the measured data reveals several trends for different mobile bands with respect to maximum exposure in those locations. Additionally, a simplified calculation method for the electromagnetic fields was used to compare calculated and the measured data. It was determined, on the basis of both results of the measurements and calculations carried out for these selected base stations, that members of the public would not be exposed to in excess of a small fraction of the ICNIRP guidelines at any of those sites. These are first such measurements to be made in the Middle East and provide assurance that exposures in this region of the world do not seem to be any greater than elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z O Alhekail
- Prince Sultan Advanced Technology Research Institute, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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