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Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T, Bohacz J. Biodegradation of keratin waste: Theory and practical aspects. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2011; 31:1689-1701. [PMID: 21550224 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2011.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2010] [Revised: 03/10/2011] [Accepted: 03/30/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Keratin-rich by-products, i.e. bristles, horns and hooves, chicken feathers and similar, are a source of nutrients for animals (amino acids) and plants (N, S). Contemporary developments in the management of keratin waste in feeds and fertilizers comply with human and animal health protection regulations and respect the principles of ecological development. Biotechnological methods employing keratinolytic bacteria and microscopic fungi play a key role in processing keratin waste. This study reviews the current knowledge on the ecology and physiology of keratinolytic microorganisms and presents the biodegradation mechanism of native keratin. The structure and chemical composition of keratin proteins are described, and methods of keratin waste biotransformation into products of practical industrial and natural value, especially composts, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Korniłłowicz-Kowalska
- University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Faculty of Agrobioengineering, Department of Environmental Microbiology, Mycological Laboratory, Leszczynskiego 7, 20-069 Lublin, Poland
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Ziegler H. Über den Stoffwechsel der Gattung Microsporum Gruby (1843) 2. Mitteilung: Abbau von Hornkeratin (Fortsetzung). Mycoses 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.1967.tb04352.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Kushwaha RKS. The In Vitro Degradation of Peacock Feathers by Some Fungi/ Der in-vitro-Abbau von Pfauenfedern durch einige Pilze. Mycoses 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.1983.tb03218.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Viani FC, Cazares Viani PR, Gutierrez Rivera IN, Gonçalves da Silva E, Rodrigues Paula C, Gambale W. Actividad proteolítica extracelular y análisis molecular de cepas de Microsporum canis aisladas de gatos con y sin sintomatología. Rev Iberoam Micol 2007; 24:19-23. [PMID: 17592886 DOI: 10.1016/s1130-1406(07)70004-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microsporum canis is the main zoophylic dermatophyte in dogs and cats, and it is also an important zoonotic agent. The literature showed that cats are asymptomatic carriers of M. canis. This is apparently due to host resistance and/or the presence of strains with lower virulence. This study was aimed to evaluate the keratinolytic, elastinolytic and collagenolytic activities of M. canis strains and their relationship with symptomatic and asymptomatic cats. In addition, these strains were analysed by RFLP. The strains isolated from cats with clinical dermatophytosis had higher keratinase and elastase activity than those isolated from asymptomatic animals (p minus than 0.05). There were not differences in RFLP patterns based on Hind III digestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flávio Cesar Viani
- Laboratorio de Micologia, Departamento de Microbiologia, ICB-USP, Av Prof Lineu Prestes 1374, CEP 05508-900, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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Aubaid AH, Muhsin TM. Partial purification and kinetic studies of exocellular proteinase from Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. erinacei. Mycoses 1998; 41:163-8. [PMID: 9670769 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.1998.tb00318.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The dermatophyte Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. erinacei isolated from a patient with tinea cruris was cultured in peptone-glucose broth from which an exocellular proteinase was obtained. The enzyme was partly purified by Sephadex G-100 gel filtration. Its molecular weight was determined to be 33,000 on sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The optimal pH was 8.5, the optimal temperature 35 degrees C. The proteolytic activity was specifically increased against casein and inhibited by phenylmethylsulphonyl fluoride. The enzyme was identified as alkaline serine proteinase.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Aubaid
- Medicine Department, Technical Institute, Nassyria, Iraq
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Simpanya MF, Baxter M. Partial characterization of proteolytic enzymes of Microsporum canis and Microsporum cookei. Mycoses 1996; 39:279-82. [PMID: 9009645 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.1996.tb00138.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Characterization by proteinase inhibitors of the enzymes produced by Microsporum spp. revealed that Microsporum canis and Microsporum cookei produce serine proteinase(s), but only M. canis expresses aspartic and cysteine proteinases and probably a metalloproteinase. Both M. canis and M. cookei expressed metalloelastinolytic proteinases. All the proteinase types have been implicated in the pathogenicity of a wide range of microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- M F Simpanya
- Department of Microbiology and Genetics, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Kunert J. Effect of reducing agents on proteolytic and keratinolytic activity of enzymes of Microsporum gypseum. Mycoses 1992; 35:343-8. [PMID: 1284610 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.1992.tb00892.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The effect of sodium sulphite, cysteine, glutathione, mercaptoethanol and dithioerythritol (0.1-10 mmol l-1) on the activity of proteases of Microsporum gypseum was studied using azocasein, cross-linked bovine serum albumin and keratin as substrates. With the substrate without disulphide bonds (casein) no stimulation was found, and reducing agents inhibited proteolysis in most cases. With the remaining two substrates, all substances enhanced the activity of proteases probably through the cleavage of the substrate disulphide bonds. Sulphite was more effective than the four used thiols and enhanced the activity against serum albumin up to 3.2 times and against keratin up to 2.9 times. Using sulphitolysed sheep wool, keratinolytic activity increased after sulphitolysis of more than 20% of disulphide bonds. With the fully sulphitolysed wool the activity increased 43 times. The obtained results support the author's hypothesis on keratin degradation by sulphite excretion prior to attack by fungal proteases. Stimulation of proteolysis and keratinolysis by cleavage of disulphide bonds is not specific for dermatophytic proteases because trypsin and pronase behaved similarly in the experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Kunert
- Department of Biology, Medical Faculty, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czechoslovakia
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Grzywnowicz G, Lobarzewski J, Wawrzkiewicz K, Wolski T. Comparative characterization of proteolytic enzymes fromTrichophyton gallinaeandTrichophyton verrucosum. Med Mycol 1989. [DOI: 10.1080/02681218980000431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
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Kunert J, Kasafírek E. Preliminary characterization of extracellular proteolytic enzymes of dermatophytes by chromogenic substrates. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL AND VETERINARY MYCOLOGY : BI-MONTHLY PUBLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR HUMAN AND ANIMAL MYCOLOGY 1988; 26:187-94. [PMID: 2459364 DOI: 10.1080/02681218880000261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Thirty-eight chromogenic substrates were used to study the specificity of the proteolytic enzymes of seven species of dermatophytes and three related keratinolytic soil fungi. The source of enzymes were cultivation fluids from cultures of the fungi grown on human hair. The overall specificity of the enzymes of all the keratinolytic fungi was very similar. Aminoacyl- and dipeptidyl-4-nitroanilides, substrates of aminopeptidases and dipeptidyl aminopeptidases respectively, were poor substrates compared to aminoterminally blocked oligopeptidyl derivatives. Of the latter, the best substrates were those with phenylalanine, leucine, alanine, methionine or arginine (i.e. amino acids with hydrophobic or basic side chains) in the P1 position. Of the amino acids in the P2 position, proline was the most effective at accelerating the hydrolysis of the respective substrates. Positions P3 and P4 and even the aminoterminal protecting group were also of importance. The specificity profiles of the proteolytic enzymes corresponded best to those of some well characterized serine proteinases (chymotrypsin, elastase).
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Affiliation(s)
- J Kunert
- Department of Biology, Medical Faculty, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechoslovakia
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Tsuboi R, Ko IJ, Matsuda K, Ogawa H. A new keratinolytic proteinase from clinical isolates of Trichophyton mentagrophytes. J Dermatol 1987; 14:506-8. [PMID: 3325542 DOI: 10.1111/j.1346-8138.1987.tb03616.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Sanyal AK, Das SK, Banerjee AB. Purification and partial characterization of an exocellular proteinase from Trichophyton rubrum. SABOURAUDIA 1985; 23:165-78. [PMID: 3895469 DOI: 10.1080/00362178585380271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
An exocellular proteinase produced by Trichophyton rubrum in a glucose-peptone broth was purified from lyophilized and dialysed culture filtrate of the dermatophyte by Sephadex G-100 gel filtration and preparative polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The purified enzyme was a homogeneous protein of molecular weight 34700 and it could hydrolyse azoalbumin, casein, bovine serum albumin, alpha-N-benzoyl-L-arginine ethyl ester and p-toluenesulfonyl-L-arginine methyl ester but not N-benzoyl-L-tyrosine ethyl ester, alpha-N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-p-nitroanilide and keratin. The enzyme showed an alkaline pH optimum and was not activated by divalent metal ions but inhibited strongly by phenylmethylsulfonylfluoride. Thus the enzyme was identified as an alkaline serine proteinase.
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Meevootisom V, Niederpruem DJ. Control of exocellular proteases in dermatophytes and especially Trichophyton rubrum. Med Mycol 1979; 17:91-106. [PMID: 94467 DOI: 10.1080/00362177985380141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The production of proteases was investigated during growth of dermatophytic fungi with special emphasis on Trichophyton rubrum. Exogenous glucose suppressed elastase production in all dermatophytes examined. The production of protease active guinea pig hair in keratin-salts broth by Microsporum gypseum. Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. rubrum was also suppressed by glucose. Various carbohydrates added to keratin-salts broth curtailed protease production by T. rubrum as did individual amino acids but ammonium phosphate did not. Enzyme activities against guinea pig hair were compared in twenty-one diverse clinical isolates of T. rubrum cultured in keratin-salts broth. Activity also occurred towards casein, bovine serum albumin, keratin, collagen and elastin after keratin-growth. Studies concerning the properties of enzyme activities in culture filtrates of T. rubrum after keratin-growth suggested that multiple proteases occurred here. Hydrolysis of guinea pig hair and elastin were optimal at pH7 while keratinase was most active at alkaline pH. Divalent cations stimulated protease(s). Ferric ion and mercuric ion stimulated keratinase but were inhibitory to guinea pig hair hydrolysis and elastase. Chelating agents inhibited elastase and the hydrolysis of guinea pig hair more severely than keratinase and all of those effects were reversed by excess calcium. A serine-protease inhibitor, phenylmethylsulfonylfluoride (PMSF), curtailed keratinase but was less inhibitory to elastase and guinea pig hair hydrolysis. Soybean trypsin inhibitor arrested each protease.
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Kunert J. Keratin decomposition by dermatophytes. II. Presence of s-sulfocysteine and cysteic acid in soluble decomposition products. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ALLGEMEINE MIKROBIOLOGIE 1976; 16:97-105. [PMID: 969572 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3630160203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The dermatophyte Microsporum gypseum was grown on human hair in a mineral medium. Filtrates of cultures of various age were chromatographed on Sephadex gels and further characterized by chemical analysis and thin-layer chromatography. The products of keratin decomposition were separated into two fractions. The first fraction formed 10 to 20% of the bulk and contained proteins low in sulfur content. The second, very wide fraction contained oligopeptides and polypeptides with molecular weights from several hundreds up to approximately 13,000 with a peak at 1,000-2,000 daltons. This fraction contained a relatively high amount of cystine, S-sulfocysteine, and cysteic acid. S-sulfocysteine was present in the free state and also combined in peptides where its amount exceeded that of cystine. This supports the author's hypothesis on keratin decomposition by dermatophytes. According to this hypothesis, the fungus excretes sulfite which cleaves the disulfide bonds of keratin to cysteine and S-sulfocysteine. The substrate, denatured by sulfitolysis, is then more easily digestible by fungal proteases. Besides S-sulfocysteine, comparable amounts of cysteic acid were found in all analyses. This compound most probably originated by air oxidation of sulfur amino acids in the alkaline cultivation fluid.
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Minocha Y, Pasricha JS, Mohapatra LN, Kandhari KC. Proteolytic activity of dermatophytes and its role in the pathogenesis of skin lesions. SABOURAUDIA 1972; 10:79-85. [PMID: 5021389 DOI: 10.1080/00362177285190161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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de Albornoz MB, Aasen IC. Estudio Citoquimico De Las Principales Enzimas Hidroliticas DelParacoccidioides brasiliensis. Med Mycol 1971. [DOI: 10.1080/00362177185190301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Rippon JW, Garber ED. Dermatophyte pathogenicity as a function of mating type and associated enzymes. J Invest Dermatol 1969; 53:445-8. [PMID: 5361577 DOI: 10.1038/jid.1969.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Day WC, Toncic P, Stratman SL, Leeman U, Harmon SR. Isolation and properties of an extracellular protease of Trichophyton granulosum. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1968; 167:597-606. [PMID: 4972615 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2744(68)90050-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Male O, Holubar K. Comparative studies on the enzyme histochemical behaviour of some dermatophytes. II. In vivo investigations (parasitic biophase). MYCOPATHOLOGIA ET MYCOLOGIA APPLICATA 1968; 35:161-74. [PMID: 5678534 DOI: 10.1007/bf02049580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Ziegler H. [Comparative studies on the metabolism of molds and dermatophytes. 2. Keratin degradation]. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ALLGEMEINE MIKROBIOLOGIE 1967; 7:53-75. [PMID: 4299637 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3630070107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Klein DT. Morphological response of Trichophyton mentagrophytes to keratin. MYCOPATHOLOGIA ET MYCOLOGIA APPLICATA 1965; 26:111-6. [PMID: 5876908 DOI: 10.1007/bf02098596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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WEARY PE, CANBY CM, CAWLEY EP. Keratinolytic Activity of Microsporum Canis and Microsporum Gypseum**From the Department of Dermatology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia. J Invest Dermatol 1965; 44:300-10. [PMID: 14290300 DOI: 10.1038/jid.1965.54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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