Actions and metabolism of histamine in glomeruli and tubules of the human kidney

The implications of histamine metabolism and signaling in renal function

Inflammation is an essential part of the immune response; it has been found to be central to the disruption of kidney function in acute kidney injury, diabetic nephropathy, hypertension, and other renal conditions. One of the well‐known mediators of the inflammatory response is histamine. Histamine receptors are expressed throughout different tissues, including the kidney, and their inhibition has proven to be a viable strategy for the treatment of many inflammation‐associated diseases. Here, we provide an overview of the current knowledge regarding the role of histamine and its metabolism in the kidney. Establishing the importance of histamine signaling for kidney function will enable new approaches for the treatment of kidney diseases associated with inflammation.

Histamine in the kidneys: what is its role in renal pathophysiology?

Starting with a role for histamine role in renal haemodynamics, evidence has accumulated, over time, suggesting a wider range of actions on renal function and this has renewed interest in the pathophysiological role of histamine in the kidney. Here we provide an up-to-date review of this topic. As the kidney expresses enzymes that synthesize and metabolise histamine, along with its receptors, all the components for histaminergic transmission are present in this tissue. The distribution of histamine receptors matches a wide range of effects. We address the questions of the redundancy of H1 and H2 receptors in renal haemodynamics, the complementary role of H1 and H4 receptors in renal filtration and reabsorption, and the dichotomy between local and neuronal H1 and H3 receptors. Experimental models of renal disease raise the possibility of new therapeutic approaches based on histamine. The effects of histamine on renal function are not yet fully understood and their elucidation is still ongoing. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on New Uses for 21st Century. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v177.3/issuetoc.

Effect of Bilastine on Diabetic Nephropathy in DBA2/J Mice

Diabetic nephropathy is an unmet therapeutic need, and the search for new therapeutic strategies is warranted. Previous data point to histamine H₁ receptor as a possible target for glomerular dysfunction associated with long term hyperglycaemia. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of the H₁ receptor antagonist bilastine on renal morphology and function in a murine model of streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Diabetes was induced in DBA2/J male mice and, from diabetes onset (glycaemia ≥200 mg/dL), mice received bilastine (1–30 mg/kg/day) by oral gavage for 14 consecutive weeks. At the end of the experimental protocol, diabetic mice showed polyuria (+195.5%), increase in Albumin-to-Creatine Ratio (ACR, +284.7%), and a significant drop in creatinine clearance (p < 0.05). Bilastine prevented ACR increase and restored creatinine clearance in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting a positive effect on glomerular filtration. The ultrastructural analysis showed a preserved junctional integrity. Preservation of the basal nephrin, P-cadherin, and synaptopodin expression could explain this effect. In conclusion, the H₁ receptor could contribute to the glomerular damage occurring in diabetic nephropathy. Bilastine preserved the glomerular junctional integrity, leading to the hypothesis of anti-H₁ antihistamines as a possible add-on therapy for diabetic nephropathy.

Histamine and diabetic nephropathy: an up-to-date overview

The classification of diabetic nephropathy (DN) as a vascular complication of diabetes makes the possible involvement of histamine, an endogenous amine that is well known for its vasoactive properties, an interesting topic for study. The aim of the present review is to provide an extensive overview of the possible involvement of histamine in the onset and progression of DN. The evidence collected on the role of histamine in kidney function together with its well-known pleiotropic action suggest that this amine may act simultaneously on glomerular hyperfiltration, tubular inflammation, fibrosis development and tubular hypertrophy.

Histamine receptor expression in human renal tubules: a comparative pharmacological evaluation

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN

The aim of this study is to evaluate the expression of the histamine receptors, particularly focusing on the H4R in human renal tubules.

MATERIAL

The ex vivo evaluation was carried on specimens from human renal cortex. Primary and immortalized tubular epithelial cells (TECs) and the HK-2 cell line were used as in vitro models.

TREATMENT

Cells were pretreated for 10 min with chlorpheniramine maleate 10 μM (H1R antagonist), ranitidine 10 µM (H2R antagonist), GSK189254 1 µM (H3R antagonist) or JNJ7777120 10 µM (H4R antagonist), and then exposed to histamine (3 pM-10 nM) for 30 min.

METHODS

The ex vivo evaluation on specimens from human renal cortex was performed by immunohistochemistry. The expression of histamine receptors on primary and immortalized TECs and the HK-2 cell line was evaluated at both gene (RT-PCR) and protein (immunocytofluorescence) levels. The pharmacological analysis was performed by TR-FRET measurements of second messenger (IP3 and cAMP) production induced by histamine with or without the selective antagonists.

RESULTS

Our data revealed the presence of all histamine receptors in human tubules; however, only TECs expressed all the receptors. Indeed, histamine elicited a sigmoid dose-response curve for IP3 production, shifted to the right by chlorpheniramine maleate, and elicited a double bell-shaped curve for cAMP production, partially suppressed by the selective H2R, H3R and H4R antagonists when each added alone, and completely ablated when combined together.

CONCLUSIONS

Herein, we report the identification of all four histamine receptors in human renal tubules.

Systematic analysis of histamine and N-methylhistamine concentrations in organs from two common laboratory mouse strains: C57Bl/6 and Balb/c

OBJECTIVE

Histamine plays a role in several (patho) physiological processes that are commonly studied in mouse models. However, a systematic quantification of histamine and its metabolite N-methylhistamine in mouse organs has not been reported so far.

METHODS

Balb/c and C57Bl/6 mice were grouped according to their sex and age. Brains, hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys, stomachs, intestines, thymi, spleens, and lymph nodes were excised, weighed, and homogenized. Histamine and N-methylhistamine were quantified simultaneously by a HPLC-mass spectrometry method.

RESULTS

In all organs analyzed, histamine and N-methylhistamine were detected; however, with quantitative differences. Histamine was present most abundantly in the stomach, lymph nodes, and thymus. The lowest histamine concentrations were detected in brain, liver, lung, and intestine. In most organs, the histamine concentrations increased age-dependently. Substantial concentrations of N-methylhistamine were detected only in lung, intestine and kidney, while in all other organs it was present only in minor quantities.

CONCLUSION

HPLC-mass spectrometry is a useful method for the highly sensitive and simultaneous detection of histamine and N-methylhistamine. Histamine is present in virtually all organs, not only in those traditionally associated with histamine-mediated disease. Highest concentrations are found in stomach, lymph node, and thymus; medium concentrations in heart, spleen, and kidney; and lowest concentrations detected in intestine, brain, liver, and lung.

Sphingosine kinase 1 and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 are vital to recovery from anaphylactic shock in mice

Sphingosine kinase 1 (SphK1) and SphK2 are ubiquitous enzymes that generate sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a ligand for a family of G protein-coupled receptors (S1PR1-S1PR5) with important functions in the vascular and immune systems. Here we explore the role of these kinases and receptors in recovery from anaphylaxis in mice. We found that Sphk2-/- mice had a rapid recovery from anaphylaxis. In contrast, Sphk1-/- mice showed poor recovery from anaphylaxis and delayed histamine clearance. Injection of S1P into Sphk1-/- mice increased histamine clearance and promoted recovery from anaphylaxis. Adoptive cell transfer experiments demonstrated that SphK1 activity was required in both the hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic compartments for recovery from anaphylaxis. Mice lacking the S1P receptor S1PR2 also showed a delay in plasma histamine clearance and a poor recovery from anaphylaxis. However, S1P did not promote the recovery of S1pr2-/- mice from anaphylaxis, whereas S1pr2+/- mice showed partial recovery. Unlike Sphk2-/- mice, Sphk1-/- and S1pr2-/- mice had severe hypotension during anaphylaxis. Thus, SphK1-produced S1P regulates blood pressure, histamine clearance, and recovery from anaphylaxis in a manner that involves S1PR2. This suggests that specific S1PR2 agonists may serve to counteract the vasodilation associated with anaphylactic shock.

Mast cell and T cell communication; amplification and control of adaptive immunity

Recent advances in understanding the physiological role of mast cells (MCs) point to an important regulatory role for these cells in adaptive immunity. MCs express a diverse array of molecules that can promote their interaction with T cells as well as with other immune cells. New evidence demonstrates that mast cells can directly and indirectly communicate with T cells. They can control both effector and regulatory T cell responses and their activity can in turn be modulated by these interactions. Here we briefly summarize these advances and discuss some of the major challenges in understanding the communication of MCs and T cells.

Abnormalities in histamine pharmacodynamics in chronic urticaria

Histamine plays a key role in the pathogenesis of chronic urticaria (CU). The authors of this paper have studied the effects of ingested histamine in 25 patients with CU. A 120 mg dose of histamine, well-tolerated in the healthy subject, was instillated into the duodenum. Concomitantly, plasma histamine (H) levels and plasma and urinary methylhistamine (MH) levels were measured. Intraduodenal administration of histamine was responsible for the development of an attack of urticaria in 64% of patients, while control subjects were asymptomatic. Plasma histamine levels were significantly higher after digestive histamine challenge (DHC) in patients with CU compared with controls. An abnormal increase in plasma histamine was observed in 72% of them. Plasma MH exhibited the same kinetic behaviour with a usually delayed time-pattern. Urinary MH concentration was higher in patients presenting with early-onset urticaria during the first hour than in those with the late-onset type between 1 and 12 hr after DHC. The coefficient of methylation (plasma MH/MH+H) was not significantly different in patients presenting with an attack of urticaria following DHC and in other subjects. Urinary excretion of MH and urinary flow increased significantly in patients presenting with an attack of urticaria following DHC which corresponds to increased absorption of histamine during the 5-hr period following DHC and its role on excretion by the kidney via vasodilation which it induces. This study demonstrates the abnormal frequency of disturbances in the metabolism of exogenous histamine in patients with CU. Increased plasma H accounts for the abnormal passage of H across the intestinal barrier which can result either from intestinal hyperpermeability and/or a deficit in the enzymatic catabolism of histamine. The systems of methylation and urinary clearance of MH appear to be effective. It is thus postulated that there is a deficit in diamine oxidase (DAO) in the enterocyte. The lack of correlation between the kinetic behaviour of plasma H and the onset of urticaria draws attention to the extent of individual variability in skin reactivity to histamine.

Effect of bradykinin and histamine on the membrane voltage, ion conductances and ion channels of human glomerular epithelial cells (hGEC) in culture

The effects of bradykinin (BK) and histamine (Hist) on the membrane voltage (Vm), ion conductances and ion channels of cultured human glomerular epithelial cells (hGEC) were examined with the nystatin patch clamp technique. Cells were studied between passage 3 and 20 in a bath rinsed with Ringer-like solution at 37 degrees C. The mean value of Vm was -41 +/- 0.5 mV (n = 189). BK (10(-6) mol/l, n = 29) and Hist (10(-5) mol/l, n = 55) induced a rapid transient hyperpolarization by 15 +/- 1 mV and 18 +/- 1 mV, respectively. The hyperpolarization was followed by a long lasting depolarization by 6 +/- 1 mV (BK 10(-6) mol/l) and 7 +/- 1 mV (Hist 10(-5) mol/l). The ED50 was about 5 x 10(-8) mol/l for BK and 5 x 10(-7) mol/l for Hist. In the presence of both agonists, increases of outward and inward currents were observed. A change in the extracellular K+ concentration from 3.6 to 30 mmol/l depolarized Vm by 8 +/- 1 mV and completely inhibited the hyperpolarizing effect of both agents (n = 11). Reduction of extracellular Cl- concentration from 145 to 30 mmol/l led to a depolarization by 2 +/- 1 mV (n = 25). In 30 mmol/l Cl- the depolarizations induced by BK (10(-7) mol/l) and Hist (10(-6) mol/l) were augmented to 9 +/- 2 mV (n = 14) and to 10 +/- 2 mV (n = 11), respectively.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Cytokine- and LPS-induced synthesis of interleukin-8 from human mesangial cells

The cytokine neutrophil-activating peptide-1/interleukin-8 (NAP/IL-8) activates neutrophils (PMN) and elicits selective diapedesis of PMN into the extracellular space. The glomerular mesangial cell (MC) is a specialized pericyte that controls glomerular filtration and synthesizes and responds to a variety of cytokines. Because of its location within the glomerulus, the MC is in a pivotal position to orchestrate events underlying immune injury. Since immune-injured glomeruli have been shown to produce NAP/IL-8 activity in vitro, we assessed whether lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- or cytokine-activated MC might be a source of this activity. Pure human MC, devoid of monocyte/macrophage and fibroblast contamination, were grown by explant from collagenase-treated glomeruli. Human recombinant interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1 alpha, 20 ng/ml), IL-1 beta (50 ng/ml), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF, 100 ng/ml) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 10 micrograms/ml) stimulated release of a neutrophil chemotactic factor from cultured MC. Both concentrated (fivefold) and unconcentrated MC supernatants stimulated directed neutrophil migration under agarose at a level similar to that of the bacterial chemotactic factor, FMLP. In contrast, unstimulated MC-conditioned media and IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta. TNF and LPS in medium alone did not directly induce PMN migration. Molecular sizing studies using sequential membrane ultrafiltration identified significant TNF-stimulated, MC-derived chemotactic activity in the 3000 to 10000 kD fraction. An anti-NAP/IL-8 monoclonal antibody, 46E5, significantly inhibited PMN chemotaxis stimulated by TNF-stimulated, MC-conditioned media in a dose-dependent manner.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Immune release of histamine and other lipid mediators from guinea-pig isolated kidney: antagonism by BN-52021

The ability of a specific PAF-receptor antagonist, BN-52021, to control the release of mediators of anaphylaxis from actively sensitized (ovalbumin) guinea-pig has been investigated "in vitro". BN-52021 perfused through the kidney at different molar concentrations (1 x 10(-4)-1 x 10(-5)-1 x 10(-6] prior to antigen challenge neither modified the basal values of perfusion pressure nor stimulated mediator release from the organ. On the contrary, the compound antagonized in a concentration dependent way both vasoconstriction of the renal vessels and the increase in the perfusate of histamine, TXB2 and SRS-A due to antigenic shock. The antagonistic activity of BN-52021 was very consistent at 1 x 10(-4) M at which concentration the immunological release of histamine and TXB2 was reduced by 75%. The beneficial effect of BN-52021 in experimental anaphylaxis of the kidney may have some therapeutic implications principally in those pathological conditions where an abnormal increase of renal histamine and other mediators may compromise the haemodynamic function of this organ.

Mast cells and IgE-mediated release of histamine and arachidonate metabolites from human kidney

We report a pilot study of mast cells and IgE-mediated release of histamine, leukotrienes and thromboxanes from human kidney. The results together with previous findings in the guinea-pig and rat suggest that mast cells and IgE may play an important role in kidney disease.

Regulation of prorenin secretion in cultured human transfected juxtaglomerular cells

The regulation of renin secretion was studied in continuous culture of human juxtaglomerular cells (JGC), which provided a permanent source of human renin production (Pinet, F., M. T. Corvol, F. Dench, J. Bourguignon, J. Feunteun, J. Ménard, and P. Corvol, 1985, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 82:8503-8507). 95% of the renin species secreted was prorenin, and therefore this study concerned primarily prorenin secretion. Renin production was stable, since the cells had been maintained in culture for more than two years. In culture, these human cells formed colonies of smooth musclelike cells, and electron microscopy showed the presence of cytoskeleton structures including myofibrils and attachment bodies. This human model was used to investigate the control of prorenin secretion in vitro at cellular level. Various pharmacological agents known to stimulate or inhibit renin secretion were tested in the cell cultures. The variations in prorenin secretion were measured in the supernatant. Forskolin, an independent receptor activator of adenylate cyclase, stimulated prorenin secretion in a dose-dependent manner and this stimulation was mediated by 3',5' cyclic-AMP (cAMP). Angiotensin II (AII) was found to inhibit prorenin secretion directly in a dose-dependent manner and atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), whose effects on human JGC were characterized for the first time, was also shown to exert such inhibition. When the effects of this inhibition by AII and ANF were tested on forskolin-mediated stimulation of prorenin secretion, the latter was inhibited and no change occurred in cAMP release. When JGC were treated with histamine, bradykinin, or one or two bradykinin analogues, the responses suggested that in these cells, H2-histamine receptors and kinin receptors are dependent on adenylate cyclase. One peptide, substance P, had an inhibitory effect on prorenin secretion but it was less important than AII and ANF. The present results demonstrate that the adenylate cyclase system of human JGC remains intact during culture and supports the hypothesis that cAMP is the second messenger and Cai2+, the final messenger involved in renin secretion. The cell system used here permits the evaluation of cellular responses and intracellular events in granulated cells in a human model.

Experimental renal anaphylaxis: release of histamine and study of its effect on renal perfusion

Antigen challenge of isolated perfused kidneys of sensitized guinea-pigs consistently released a large proportion of their histamine content, and caused a reduction in renal perfusate flow rate (RPFR) which could not simply be due to the released histamine, since much larger amounts of exogenous histamine were needed to produce a comparable effect. Reduction in RPFR by histamine was blocked by mepyramine but not by cimetidine, i.e. it is mediated by an H1-receptor mechanism.

Renal histamine: release by immune stimuli

In vitro perfused kidneys of ovalbumin-sensitized guinea-pigs consistently released relatively large quantities of histamine when challenged with the specific antigen (mean +/- SEM in twelve experiments was 37.7 +/- 6.0% of total kidney histamine, maximum 70.6%, compared with a basal release of 0.5 +/- 0.46% over a comparable period) but not with non-cross-reacting antigens. There was also no release from non-sensitized kidney. Rabbit antisera to guinea pig IgG1 and IgG2 immunoglobulins (but not normal rabbit serum) also consistently released histamine from perfused kidneys of sensitized guinea-pigs, but the release was smaller than with antigen, and could also be obtained from kidneys of non-sensitized guinea-pigs (maximum release 62.4% with the most potent antiserum). Guinea-pig kidney cell suspensions prepared by collagenase dispersion in vitro responded similarly, but the release with antigen was small (less than 10% net release, minus the spontaneous release 9.46% on average) as compared to anti-IgG1 (net release up to 38%) or anti-IgG2 (up to 44%). Rat kidney cells prepared by a similar procedure, and passively sensitized in vitro by incubation with rat immunoglobulin E (IgE) myeloma protein also responded to the addition of antiserum to rat IgE by releasing substantial amounts of histamine (up to 44% net release). In addition, heparin-containing cells (presumably mast cells or equivalent) in the enzyme-dispersed kidney cell preparations in both species were identified and counted by an adaptation of the Technicon H 6000 system used for counting blood basophils, and shown to represent 1 in 10,000 or less of the total cell population, which was not different from the count of similar cells in lung and heart tissues.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Histamine modulates contraction and cyclic nucleotides in cultured rat mesangial cells. Differential effects mediated by histamine H1 and H2 receptors

Histamine influences the glomerular microcirculation and modulates immune-inflammatory responses. In the rat kidney, histamine is synthesized by glomeruli and stimulates cyclic nucleotide production specifically in glomeruli. We investigated the in vitro effect of histamine on cyclic nucleotide accumulation in rat cultured glomerular mesangial and epithelial cells. Histamine stimulated cyclic AMP (cAMP) accumulation in cultured mesangial cells (64.0 +/- 22.1 to 511.4 +/- 86.6 pmol/mg protein, n = 9) but had no effect on cAMP accumulation in epithelial cells. This effect was dose-dependent and time-dependent. Stimulation of cAMP accumulation occurred in the range of 5 X 10(-6) M-10(-4) M histamine with a half maximal stimulatory effect of 2 X 10(-5) M. Initial stimulation was noted by 30 s, and maximum stimulation was observed at 5 min. The H2 antagonist cimetidine (10(-4) M) abolished the stimulatory effect of histamine (10(-4) M), while equimolar concentrations of the H1 antagonist diphenhydramine had no significant effect on cAMP accumulation. Moreover, the specific H2 agonist dimaprit, but not the H1 agonist 2-pyridylethylamine, stimulated cAMP accumulation. Histamine had no effect on cAMP accumulation in epithelial cells or on cyclic guanosine monophosphate accumulation in epithelial or mesangial cells. Since the in vivo infusion of histamine reduces ultrafiltration coefficient and since mesangial cell contraction is thought to be responsible for the reduction in the ultrafiltration coefficient, we examined the effect of histamine on the contractile property of mesangial cells. Histamine (5 X 10(-6)-10(-4) M) contracted mesangial cells, and the H1 antagonist diphenhydramine (10(-4) M) but not the H2 antagonist cimetidine (10(-4) M) prevented histamine (10(-4) M) induced contraction. In addition, the H1 agonist 2-pyridylethylamine, but not the H2 agonist dimaprit, contracted mesangial cells. Histamine and its specific agonists and antagonists induced contraction of isolated glomeruli as assessed by glomerular planar surface area in a manner parallel to their effect on mesangial cells. Cinnarizine (10(-5) M), a Ca++ channel blocker, or Ca++, Mg++-free medium prevented histamine (10(-4) M) induced mesangial cell and glomerular contraction. Thus, histamine enhances cAMP accumulation specifically in mesangial cells via an H2 receptor. In contrast, histamine contracts mesangial cells and glomeruli via an H1 receptor, an effect that is dependent on extracellular Ca++ entry. These findings show that histamine potentially influences intraglomerular hemodynamics via effects on mesangial cell contraction. Moreover, our findings considered with the in vivo observation that histamine reduces kf via and H1 receptor provide further support of the hypothesis that mesangial cell contraction regulates the glomerular capillary surface area available for filtration. Our studies also show that this contractile effect of histamine is dependent on extracellular calcium. The presence of a cAMP system sensitive to histamine may have major implications in the pathogenesis of inflammatory glomerulopathies. Mesangial cells possess characteristics similar to circulating and tissue immune effector cells, including lysosomal enzyme release, oxygen radical production, and release of a number of immunomodulatory factors. Histamine and cAMP have been shown to modulate such characteristics of inflammatory cells. It is therefore conceivable that histamine, via its interaction with H2 receptors and subsequent generation cAMP, may have profound effects on such properties of mesangial cells, suggesting that this autacoid may modulate not only glomerular hemodynamics but also immune, inflammatory responses within the glomerulus.