Cytoplasmic pH regulation in canine renal proximal tubule cells

Exploitation of intracellular pH gradients in the cellular delivery of macromolecules

Most cellular components such as the cytoplasm, endosomes, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, mitochondria, and nuclei are known to maintain their own characteristic pH values. These pH values range from as low as 4.5 in the lysosome to about 8.0 in the mitochondria. Given these proton gradients around a neutral pH, weak acids, and bases with a pKa between 5.0 and 8.0 can exhibit dramatic changes in physicochemical properties. These compounds can be conjugated as such to macromolecules or incorporated into polymeric or liposomal formulations to promote the efficient cellular delivery of macromolecules. Mechanistically, the carrier molecules can facilitate favorable membrane partition, membrane fusion, transient pore formation, or membrane disruption. Drug carriers equipped with such pH-sensitive triggers and switches are able to significantly enhance the cellular delivery of macromolecules in vitro. However, the successful application of these molecules for efficient delivery in vivo requires the design of noncytotoxic, nonimmunogenic, serum compatible and biochemically labile carriers, systematic analysis of their mechanisms of action, and extensive animal studies.

Neonatal rabbit proximal tubule basolateral membrane Na+/H+ antiporter and Cl-/base exchange

The present in vitro microperfusion study examined the maturation of Na+/H+ antiporter and Cl-/base exchanger on the basolateral membrane of rabbit superficial proximal straight tubules (PST). Intracellular pH (pHi) was measured with the pH-sensitive fluorescent dye 2', 7'-bis(2-carboxyethyl)-5(6)-carboxyfluorescein in neonatal and adult superficial PST. Na+/H+ antiporter activity was examined after basolateral Na+ addition in tubules initially perfused and bathed without Na+. Neonatal Na+/H+ antiporter activity was approximately 40% that of adult segment (9.7 +/- 1.5 vs. 23.7 +/- 3.2 pmol. mm-1. min-1; P < 0.001). The effect of bath Cl- removal on pHi was used to assess the rates of basolateral Cl-/base exchange. In both neonatal and adult PST, the Cl-/base exchange activity was significantly higher in the presence of 25 mM HCO-3 than in the absence of HCO-3 and was inhibited by cyanide and acetazolamide, consistent with Cl-/HCO-3 exchange. The proton flux rates in the presence of bicarbonate in neonatal and adult tubules were 14.1 +/- 3.6 and 19.5 +/- 3.5 pmol. mm-1min-1, respectively (P = NS), consistent with a mature rate of Cl-/HCO-3 exchanger activity in neonatal tubules. Basolateral Cl-/base exchange activity in the absence of CO2 and HCO-3, with luminal and bath cyanide and acetazolamide, was greater in adult than in neonatal PST and inhibited by bath DIDS consistent with a maturational increase in Cl-/OH- exchange. We have previously shown that the rates of the apical membrane Na+/H+ antiporter and Cl-/base exchanger were approximately fivefold lower in neonatal compared with adult rabbit superficial PST. These data demonstrate that neonatal PST basolateral membrane Na+/H+ antiporter and Cl-/base exchanger activities are relatively more mature than the Na+/H+ antiporter and Cl-/base exchangers on the apical membrane.

Influence of alkaline buffers on cytoplasmic pH in myocardial cells exposed to hypoxia

The fluorescent intracellular probe 2',7'-bis-(carboxyethyl)-5,6-carboxyfluorescein acetoxymethyl ester was used in this experimental study to investigate the effects of different alkaline buffers on cytoplasmic pH in suspended myocardial cells under normal as well as hypoxic conditions. A dose-dependent intracellular acidification was achieved after addition of sodium bicarbonate or Tris buffer mixture (Tribonat) to the myocardial cells under normal conditions. After this immediate decrease in cytoplasmic pH, a tendency for the pH to rise again was recorded during the observation period, but this elevation of pH occurred to variable degrees with the different agents and dosages. Addition of larger volumes of Tribonat caused the cytoplasmic pH to return to the initial value during the observation time. Addition of Ringer's acetate produced a significant and persistent cytoplasmic acidification. Larger volumes of Carbicarb as well as pure trometamol (Tris) caused a lasting intracellular alkalinization. Hypoxia per se caused a marked intracellular acidosis in the cardiomyocytes. During hypoxia, addition of sodium bicarbonate caused a further decrease of cytoplasmic pH, turning into an increase during the observation period. Also, Tribonat caused an immediate further acidification, but 15 min after the addition the intracellular pH-value had reached the normal level of normoxic cells. Addition of Ringer's acetate caused a further significant and lasting decrease of intracellular pH. The effect of Carbicarb was a persistent alkalinization of the cell interior. Trometamol produced the most pronounced rise of cytoplasmic pH. In conclusion, this in vitro study shows that Tris buffer mixture (Tribonat) possesses important qualities for correction of metabolic acidosis due to hypoxia and may perhaps be preferred over other alkaline buffers in some situations.

Influence of alkaline buffers on cytoplasmic pH in myocardial cells exposed to metabolic acidosis

The influence of different clinically used alkaline buffers on cytoplasmic pH in normal as well as acidotic rat myocardial cells was investigated in this study by means of the fluorescent intracellular probe 2',7'-bis-(carboxyethyl)-5,6-carboxyfluorescein acetoxymethyl ester (BCECF-AM). It was shown that both sodium bicarbonate and Tris buffer mixture (Tribonat) caused a significant and dose-dependent acidification of the cytoplasm of suspended myocardial cells with normal initial intracellular pH. This decrease was followed by a slow increase during the observation period. The initial cytoplasmic pH value was more easily reached when Tris buffer mixture was used. Ringer's acetate also caused a decrease of intracellular pH, but this change persisted and was further amplified during the experiment. Carbicarb in larger dosages as well as pure trometamol (Tris) caused a pronounced dose-dependent and lasting intracellular alkalinization. Intracellular acidosis was achieved by preincubating the cells in sodium acetate. Addition of sodium bicarbonate caused an initial and dose-dependent acidification of the cytoplasm followed by a slow increase to values slightly above the induced acidosis. In contrast, Tris buffer mixture showed a tendency towards an initial acidification only when larger dosages were used, and correction of the induced acidosis was possible by use of moderate to large volumes. Ringer's acetate produced a lasting and dose-dependent decrease of cytoplasmic pH, while Carbicarb and pure trometamol caused an immediate, pronounced and persistent alkalinization. Myocardial cells with low initial cytoplasmic pH due to preincubation in an acid buffer also showed an early decrease of intracellular pH after addition of sodium bicarbonate and Tris buffer mixture. In the case of sodium bicarbonate correction of the acid-base disturbance was not achieved during the observation period, while this was accomplished by use of larger volumes of Tris buffer mixture. Carbicarb in larger volumes caused an increase in intracellular pH. The most significant and persistent increases of cytoplasmic pH was achieved by use of pure trometamol. In conclusion, the present in vitro study implies that Tris buffer mixture (Tribonat) is well-suited for correction of intracellular acidosis since it acts without causing a pronounced initial intracellular acidosis or a later potentially hazardous huge cytoplasmic alkalinization.

Rabbit esophageal cells possess an Na+,H+ antiport

The development of esophagitis is the result of hydrogen ion diffusion into the mucosa leading to cellular acidification and necrosis. In these studies, whether esophageal cells possess transport system(s) that can respond to cytoplasmic acidification was assessed; specifically, whether esophageal cells possess an Na+,H+ antiport was determined. Nucleated esophageal cells were isolated from rabbit esophagi using a trypsin-digestion technique that yielded 5-8 x 10(6) cells per esophagus, of which 74% +/- 3% were basal and 26% +/- 8% were squamous. Trypan blue was excluded by 95% +/- 2% of the cells. Cytoplasmic pH (pHi) was measured using the pH-sensitive fluorescence dye 2',7'-bis(2-carboxyethyl)-5 (and -6) carboxyfluorescein acetoxymethyl ester. Cells were acidified to the desired pHi by suspension in solutions with varying external pH (pHo) in the presence of nigericin. When cells acidified to pHi 6.3 were suspended in a choline chloride solution (pHo 7.4), cytoplasmic pHi did not increase. In contrast, Nao+ caused a concentration-dependent increase in the rate of cytoplasmic alkalinization with saturation occurring above 50 mmol/L Nao+. The transporter behaved according to first-order Michaelis-Menten type kinetics with respect to external Na+ and had an apparent Km for Nao+ of 38.4 mmol/L. In contrast, the transporter behaved with greater than first-order kinetics with respect to external Na+ and had an apparent Km for Nao+ of 38.4 mmol/L. In contrast, the transporter behaved with greater than first-order kinetics with respect to cytoplasmic hydrogen ion concentration. Amiloride (10(-4) mol/L) caused a reversible inhibition of Na(+)-dependent alkalinization. Amiloride-sensitive cytoplasmic alkalinization was not observed when either cholineo or Ko+ was substituted for Nao+, while Lio+ resulted in alkalinization that was 60% +/- 8% of that seen with equimolar concentrations of Nao+. The basal pHi of cells suspended in a bicarbonate-free 130 mmol/L NaCl solution (pHo 7.4) averaged 7.42 +/- 0.03 (n = 10); amiloride (10(-4) mmol/L caused the basal pHi to decrease to 7.26 +/- 0.05 (n = 10; P less than 0.0025). When cells were suspended in a choline chloride (pHo 7.4) solution, pHi averaged 7.29 +/- 0.06 (n = 10) (P less than 0.0025 compared with Nao+). These studies indicate that nucleated esophageal cells obtained from rabbits possess an amiloride-sensitive Na+,H+ antiport that functions to regulate basal pHi and responds to intracellular acidification.

Effects of endothelin on sodium transport mechanisms: potential role in cellular Ca2+ mobilization

The effects of endothelin on cellular Ca2+ mobilization were examined in cultured rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). Endothelin (10(-8)M) induced a rapid transient increase of [Ca2+]i from 77 +/- 3 to 104 +/- 5 nM (p less than .05) in VSMC. Preincubation (60 min) with endothelin (2 x 10(-6)M) increased basal [Ca2+]i from 77 +/- 3 to 105 +/- 8 nM (p less than .05). Preincubation with endothelin also enhanced vasopressin (10(-7)M)-stimulated peak levels of [Ca2+]i (528 +/- 20 nM vs 969 +/- 21 nM, p less than .01). Endothelin (10(-7)M) induced an intracellular alkalinization (7.18 +/- 0.03 vs 7.37 +/- 0.04, p less than .01) which was blocked by pretreatment with amiloride. The biphasic effects of endothelin on [Ca2+]i were similar to those of an endogenous inhibitor of Na-K-ATPase that we examined in a previous study. Therefore, we examined the effects of endothelin on Na-K-ATPase in an enzyme preparation from hog cerebral cortex. At high concentrations, endothelin (10(-5)M) inhibited Na-K-ATPase in vitro. Thus, endothelin may exert its vasoconstrictor effects at least in part via alterations of cellular Ca2+ mobilization in VSMC. While the rapid transient increase of [Ca2+]i appears to reflect intracellular Ca2+ mobilization, the sustained effect on [Ca2+]i may be related to an increase of intracellular sodium mediated by inhibition of Na-K-ATPase and/or more likely by stimulation of the Na+/H+-antiport.

Cl-/base exchange in rat mesangial cells: regulation of intracellular pH

The present study was designed to determine whether rat glomerular mesangial cells possess Cl- -dependent intracellular pH (pHi) regulatory processes. Rat glomerular mesangial cells were grown to confluence on glass coverslips. Intracellular pH (pHi) was measured with BCECF. Steady state pHi in HCO3- containing solutions was 7.08 +/- 0.03 (N = 13). When extracellular Cl- was acutely removed, pHi increased at a rate of 0.57 +/- 0.03 pH/min units (N = 8), P less than 0.001. DIDS (0.5 mM) significantly decreased the rate of increase in pHi to 0.34 +/- 0.04 pH/min, P less than 0.01. Na+ removal and amiloride (1 mM) did not alter the increase in pHi induced by Cl- removal. Steady state pHi in the absence of Cl- was significantly increased above control, 7.39 +/- 0.02 (N = 7), P less than 0.001. Following the acute alkalinization of pHi by CO2 removal, pHi recovered at a rate of 0.07 +/- 0.01 pH/min (N = 9). In the absence of Cl-, the pHi recovery rate was significantly decreased to 0.01 +/- 0.008 pH/min (N = 5), P less than 0.01. DIDS (0.5 mM) significantly decreased the rate of pHi recovery to 0.02 +/- 0.01 pH/min (N = 5), P less than 0.01. Na+ removal and amiloride (1 mM) had no effect on the rate of pHi recovery following acute alkaline loading.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Modulatory function of protein kinase C in the activation of ornithine decarboxylase and in cAMP production in rat osteoblasts

The effect of activation of protein kinase C on stimulation of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) activity and cAMP production was studied in fetal rat osteoblasts. Both phorbol 12-myristate, 13-acetate (PMA), an activator of protein kinase C, and 4 alpha-phorbol, ineffective in activating protein kinase C, failed to stimulate ODC activity and cAMP production. We tested the effect of protein kinase C on stimulation of ODC activity by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and forskolin. In contrast to PTH-stimulated ODC activity, which was not affected by PMA, forskolin-stimulated (1 and 10 microM) ODC activity was dose dependently reduced. PMA (400 nM) reduced both 1 and 10 microM forskolin-stimulated ODC activity to the same level, approximately 3 nmol CO2/mg protein, which suggests a controlling role of protein kinase C in forskolin-stimulated ODC activity. The study of the effect of protein kinase C on PTH- and forskolin-stimulated cAMP production also revealed differences between PTH and forskolin. When PMA was added simultaneously with PTH (4 and 20 nM) or forskolin (1 and 10 microM) the PTH-stimulated cAMP production was dose-dependently potentiated by PMA, whereas forskolin-stimulated cAMP production was not affected. However, both PTH- and forskolin-stimulated cAMP production was dose-dependently augmented when PMA was added 3 min prior to PTH or forskolin. With increasing preincubation periods (up to 24 h) with PMA instead of a potentiation an inhibition was observed. This inhibition is not due to PTH receptor desensitization, although, on basis of the present results desensitization can not completely be excluded. In all cases 4 alpha-phorbol was without effect. The present results show that protein kinase C modulates stimulation of ODC activity and cAMP production in fetal rat osteoblasts. The modulation of both ODC activity and cAMP production appears to be dependent on the nature of the stimulator. The present data suggest a role for protein kinase C in limiting the cAMP-mediated stimulation of ODC activity in these cells. Furthermore, it is suggested that protein kinase C can interfere at more than one site in the cAMP-generating system.

Parathyroid hormone depresses cytosolic pH and DNA synthesis in osteoblast-like cells

It has recently become apparent that a number of hormones and growth factors modulate cytosolic pH (pHi), and there is some evidence that this in turn may influence cell growth. We have examined the effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH) on both these parameters in an osteoblast-like cell line, UMR 106. Preliminary studies, using the pH-sensitive fluorescent probe 2',7'-bis(2-carboxyethyl)-5(6)-carboxyfluorescein indicated that these cells regulate pHi by means of an amiloride-inhibitable Na+-H+ exchanger. Rat PTH-(1-34) (rPTH) caused a progressive dose-related decrease in pHi with a half-maximal effect at 10(-11) M. At 1 h, the maximal depression of pHi was 0.1 +/- 0.01 U. This effect was reproduced by forskolin, but neither agent influenced pHi in the presence of amiloride. Incorporation of [3H]thymidine was reduced by rPTH (half-maximal dose approximately 10(-11) M), forskolin, and N6,2'-O-dibutyryladenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate. The diacylglycerol analogue, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, increased both pHi and [3H]thymidine incorporation, and amiloride reduced both indexes. However, rPTH remained a potent inhibitor of [3H]thymidine incorporation in the presence of amiloride, even though it did not affect pHi in these circumstances. It is concluded that PTH decreases pHi and growth in UMR 106 cells but that these changes can be dissociated. Depression of pHi may have other important effects on bone metabolism, such as reducing cell-cell communication, and may be associated with alkalinization of the bone fluid compartment.

Regulation of cell pH by ambient bicarbonate, carbon dioxide tension, and pH in the rabbit proximal convoluted tubule

To study the regulation of cell pH by ambient pH, carbon dioxide tension (PCO2), and bicarbonate (HCO3), cell pH was measured in the isolated, in vitro microperfused rabbit proximal convoluted tubule using the fluorescent dye (2',7')-bis-(carboxyethyl)-(5,6)-carboxyfluorescein. For the same changes in external pH, changes in [HCO3] and PCO2 affected cell pH similarly ([HCO3]: pHi/pHe = 0.67, PCO2: pHi/pHe = 0.64, NS). Isohydric changes in extracellular [HCO3] and PCO2 did not change cell pH significantly. Changes in peritubular [HCO3] elicited larger changes in cell pH than changes in luminal [HCO3], which were enhanced by peritubular 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulfonate (SITS). The cell pH defense against acute increases and decreases in PCO2 was inhibited by sodium, but not by chloride removal. Peritubular SITS inhibited the cell pH defense against increases and decreases of PCO2, whereas luminal amiloride inhibited cell pH defense against increases in PCO2.

CONCLUSIONS

(a) Steady-state cell pH changes in response to changes in extracellular [HCO3] and PCO2 are quantitatively similar for a given change in extracellular pH; (b) the rate of the basolateral Na/(HCO3)3 cotransporter is a more important determinant of cell pH than the rate of the apical membrane mechanism(s); (c) cell pH defense against acute changes in PCO2 depends on the basolateral Na/(HCO3)3 cotransporter (acid and alkaline loads) and the luminal Na/H antiporter (acid loads).