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Kammer DS, McLaskey GC, Abercrombie RE, Ampuero JP, Cattania C, Cocco M, Dal Zilio L, Dresen G, Gabriel AA, Ke CY, Marone C, Selvadurai PA, Tinti E. Earthquake energy dissipation in a fracture mechanics framework. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4736. [PMID: 38830886 PMCID: PMC11148115 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47970-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Earthquakes are rupture-like processes that propagate along tectonic faults and cause seismic waves. The propagation speed and final area of the rupture, which determine an earthquake's potential impact, are directly related to the nature and quantity of the energy dissipation involved in the rupture process. Here, we present the challenges associated with defining and measuring the energy dissipation in laboratory and natural earthquakes across many scales. We discuss the importance and implications of distinguishing between energy dissipation that occurs close to and far behind the rupture tip, and we identify open scientific questions related to a consistent modeling framework for earthquake physics that extends beyond classical Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Kammer
- Institute for Building Materials, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Gregory C McLaskey
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | | | - Jean-Paul Ampuero
- Université Côte d'Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, IRD, CNRS, Géoazur, Valbonne, France
| | - Camilla Cattania
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Massimo Cocco
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Dal Zilio
- Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Georg Dresen
- Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Alice-Agnes Gabriel
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD, La Jolla, USA
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Chun-Yu Ke
- Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Chris Marone
- Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- La Sapienza Universitá di Roma, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Roma, Italia
| | | | - Elisa Tinti
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
- La Sapienza Universitá di Roma, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Roma, Italia
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2
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Agroli G, Okamoto A, Uno M, Tsuchiya N. Multiscale off-fault brecciation records coseismic energy budget of principal fault zone. Sci Rep 2024; 14:12121. [PMID: 38802417 PMCID: PMC11130164 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-62838-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Breccia and pulverized rock are typical textures in off-fault damage adjacent to a main seismogenic zone. Previously, by estimating the energy required to advance the rupture in this zone using particle size distribution at sub-millimeter/micrometer scales, we could constrain the energy budget during coseismic events. However, whether microscopic estimation is sufficient to capture surface energy fragmentation during an earthquake and the effect of measurement scale variation on calculation of co-seismic energy partitioning remained unclear. Here, we investigated the mechanism of coseismic off-fault damage based on field and microstructural observations of a well-exposed breccia body in Ichinokawa, Japan. We used in situ clast measurements coupled with thin-section analysis of breccia clasts to estimate the energy budget of the damage zone adjacent to the principal slip zone of the Median Tectonic Line (MTL). The total surface energy density and corresponding surface energy per unit fault for a width of ~ 500 m of the dynamical damage zone were estimated. The moment magnitude estimated based on surface energy was 5.8-8.3 Mw. In Ichinokawa, off-fault fragmentation is initiated by coseismic activity and is followed by fluid activity. Under dynamic fragmentation conditions, the scale is important to calculate the surface energy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geri Agroli
- Graduated School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan
| | - Atsushi Okamoto
- Graduated School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan
| | - Masaoki Uno
- Graduated School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan
| | - Noriyoshi Tsuchiya
- Graduated School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan.
- National Institute of Technology, Hachinohe College, Hachinohe, Aomori, 039-1192, Japan.
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3
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Kawabata K, Tsunomori F, Kitamura Y, Lin YY, Chan CH, Ma KF. Radon concentration in seawater as a geochemical indicator of submarine fault activity in the Yatsushiro Sea, Japan. Sci Rep 2024; 14:8664. [PMID: 38622234 PMCID: PMC11018784 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-59006-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
This study examined the relationship between radon (222Rn) concentrations in seawater and crustal activity in the Yatsushiro Sea by investigating the submarine fault zone situated at the southern end of the Futagawa-Hinagu fault zone, activated by the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake (M7.3). We conducted an analysis of 222Rn concentration in samples of bottom water just above the seafloor and pore water in sediments, utilizing multiple and piston cores from the Hakuho Maru Expedition KH18-3. The findings revealed significantly elevated 222Rn concentrations in the central sites of the Yatsushiro Sea, coinciding with a high-stress field exhibiting dense active faults. Seismicity analysis revealed heightened moment release and a low b-value post the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake, indicative of increased seismic activity and the potential for substantial earthquakes in the Yatsushiro Sea vicinity. Our results indicate that heightened concentrations of 222Rn in seawater can serve as an effective tracer for identifying and estimating submarine fault activities. Moreover, our research highlights the utility of 222Rn concentrations in detecting active submarine faults and assessing their activity. It contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the potential for significant earthquakes in the Yatsushiro Sea in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuniyo Kawabata
- Center for General Education, Kagoshima University, 1-21-30 Korimoto, Kagoshima-City, Kagoshima, 890-0082, Japan.
| | - Fumiaki Tsunomori
- Geochemical Research Center, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Yujin Kitamura
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-35 Korimoto, Kagoshima-City, Kagoshima, 890-0082, Japan
| | - Yen-Yu Lin
- Department of Earth Sciences, National Central University, No.300, Zhongda Rd., Zhongli, Taoyuan, 320317, Taiwan
- Earthquake-Disaster and Risk Evaluation and Management (E-DREaM) Center, National Central University, No.300, Zhongda Rd., Zhongli, Taoyuan, 320317, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Applied Geology, National Central University, No.300, Zhongda Rd., Zhongli, Taoyuan, 320317, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Han Chan
- Department of Earth Sciences, National Central University, No.300, Zhongda Rd., Zhongli, Taoyuan, 320317, Taiwan
- Earthquake-Disaster and Risk Evaluation and Management (E-DREaM) Center, National Central University, No.300, Zhongda Rd., Zhongli, Taoyuan, 320317, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Applied Geology, National Central University, No.300, Zhongda Rd., Zhongli, Taoyuan, 320317, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Fong Ma
- Earthquake-Disaster and Risk Evaluation and Management (E-DREaM) Center, National Central University, No.300, Zhongda Rd., Zhongli, Taoyuan, 320317, Taiwan
- Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia Sinica, 128, Sec. 2, Academia Road, Nangang, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
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Toffol G, Pennacchioni G, Menegon L, Wallis D, Faccenda M, Camacho A, Bestmann M. On-fault earthquake energy density partitioning from shocked garnet in an exhumed seismic midcrustal fault. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadi8533. [PMID: 38427735 PMCID: PMC10906929 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adi8533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
The energy released during an earthquake is mostly dissipated in the fault zone and subordinately as radiated seismic waves. The on-fault energy budget is partitioned into frictional heat, generation of new grain surface by microfracturing, and crystal-lattice distortion associated with dislocation defects. The relative contribution of these components is debated and difficult to assess, but this energy partitioning strongly influences earthquake mechanics. We use high-resolution scanning-electron-microscopy techniques, especially to analyze shocked garnet in a fault wall-rock, to provide the first estimate of all three energy components for a seismic fault patch exhumed from midcrustal conditions. Fault single-jerk seismicity is recorded by the presence of pristine quenched frictional melt. The estimated value of energy per unit fault surface is ~13 megajoules per square meter for heat, which is predominant with respect to both surface energy (up to 0.29 megajoules per square meter) and energy associated with crystal lattice distortion (0.02 megajoules per square meter).
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Toffol
- Department of Geosciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Luca Menegon
- Njord Centre, Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - David Wallis
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Alfredo Camacho
- Department of Geological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
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Jayawickrama EG, Sekiguchi T, Muto J, Sawa S, Nagahama H, Kono Y, Bae KO, Shin HS. A split Hopkinson pressure bar for experimental investigation of dynamic pulverization under very high strain rates. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2023; 94:095110. [PMID: 37724930 DOI: 10.1063/5.0151448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
Off-fault damage or pulverized rocks found in large-scale strike-slip faults are of great interest in earthquake research. In order to experimentally investigate rock pulverization, we developed a split Hopkinson pressure bar with compact dimensions and high-speed imaging. The developed experimental setup is capable of generating very high strain rates up to 1320 s-1 with the satisfaction of stress equilibrium, which are essential to reproduce the dynamic pulverization observed in nature and obtain dynamic stress-strain responses accurately. High-speed imaging revealed that cracks initiate and propagate along the grain boundaries at very high speeds, while the dynamic stress-strain response suggested that energy dissipated into the fracture increases with stronger impacts. In addition, we show that the apparatus is capable of producing particle size distributions partly similar to those in naturally pulverized rocks of large-scale strike-slip faults. Thus, our developed system with compact dimensions opens new ways to understand the dynamics of the rock pulverization in off-fault regions of large-scale strike-slip faults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eranga Gayanath Jayawickrama
- Department of Earth Science, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, 6-3, Aramaki Aza Aoba, Aoba, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan
- Earth and Planetary Systems Science Program, Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8526, Japan
| | - Takuma Sekiguchi
- Department of Earth Science, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, 6-3, Aramaki Aza Aoba, Aoba, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan
| | - Jun Muto
- Department of Earth Science, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, 6-3, Aramaki Aza Aoba, Aoba, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan
| | - Sando Sawa
- Department of Earth Science, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, 6-3, Aramaki Aza Aoba, Aoba, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Nagahama
- Department of Earth Science, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, 6-3, Aramaki Aza Aoba, Aoba, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan
| | - Yoshio Kono
- Geodynamics Research Center, Ehime University, 2-5 Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8577, Japan
| | - Kyung-Oh Bae
- Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (KRISS), 267 Gajeong-Ro, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
- PRETECH CO., LTD. 403-2 Sannoucho, Inage-ku, Chiba, 263-0002, Japan
| | - Hyung-Seop Shin
- Department of Mechanical and Robotics Engineering, Andong National University, 1375, Gyeongdong-ro (SongCheon-dong), Andong, Gyeongsangbuk-do 36729, Republic of Korea
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6
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Houben M, van Eeden JCM, Barnhoorn A, Hangx SJT. Fracture-Induced Permeability in Whitby Mudstone. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:9564-9572. [PMID: 32628456 PMCID: PMC7409142 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c00557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Shale host rock and containment potential are largely determined by the connected pore network in the rock, and the connection between the pore network and the naturally present or mechanically induced fracture network together determines the total bulk permeability. Pore connectivity in shales is poorly understood because most of the porosity is present in sub-micrometer-sized pores that are connected through nanometer-sized pore throats. We have used a number of different techniques to investigate the microstructure and permeability of Early Jurassic shales from the UK (Whitby Mudstone), under intact and fractured conditions. Whitby Mudstone is a clay matrix-rich rock (50-70%), with different mineralogical layers on the sub-millimeter scale and very low natural permeability (10-19 to 10-22 m2), representative of many gas shales and caprocks present in Europe. Artificial fracturing of this shale increases its permeability by 2-5 orders of magnitude at low confining pressure (5 MPa). At high confining pressures (30 MPa), permeability changes were more sensitive to the measuring direction with respect to the bedding orientation. Given the distinct lack of well-defined damage zones, most of the permeability increase is controlled by fracture permeability, which is sensitive to the coupled hydro-chemo-mechanical response of the fractures to fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maartje
E. Houben
- Department
of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, 3585 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Auke Barnhoorn
- Department
of Geoscience and Engineering, Delft University
of Technology, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Suzanne J. T. Hangx
- Department
of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, 3585 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
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7
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Volumetric and shear processes in crystalline rock approaching faulting. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:16234-16239. [PMID: 31371500 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1902994116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the approach to faulting in continental rocks is critical for identifying processes leading to fracturing in geomaterials and the preparation process of large earthquakes. In situ dynamic X-ray imaging and digital volume correlation analysis of a crystalline rock core, under a constant confining pressure of 25 MPa, are used to elucidate the initiation, growth, and coalescence of microfractures leading to macroscopic failure as the axial compressive stress is increased. Following an initial elastic deformation, microfractures develop in the solid, and with increasing differential stress, the damage pervades the rock volume. The creation of new microfractures is accompanied by propagation, opening, and closing of existing microfractures, leading to the emergence of damage indices that increase as powers of the differential stress when approaching failure. A strong spatial correlation is observed between microscale zones with large positive and negative volumetric strains, microscale zones with shears of opposite senses, and microscale zones with high volumetric and shear strains. These correlations are attributed to microfracture interactions mediated by the heterogeneous stress field. The rock fails macroscopically as the microfractures coalesce and form a geometrically complex 3D volume that spans the rock sample. At the onset of failure, more than 70% of the damage volume is connected in a large fracture cluster that evolves into a fault zone. In the context of crustal faulting dynamics, these results suggest that evolving rock damage around existing locked or future main faults influences the localization process that culminates in large brittle rupture events.
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8
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Geochemical Alteration and Mineralogy of Coals under the Influence of Fault Motion: A Case Study of Qi’nan Colliery, China. MINERALS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/min9070389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Geochemical characteristics of rocks in fault zones have been extensively studied, while there are limited studies on coal occurring in fault zones of underground coal mine. In this study, five coal samples were carefully collected from a reverse fault zone in Qi’nan colliery. Systematical detection methods were employed to analyze the different chemical and physical characteristics of fault-related coal samples. Through comparative analysis, the following insights are obtained. Three subdivided fault zones were classified according to the deformation characteristics of coal samples. Frictional heat and strong ductile deformation generated by fault motion led to the dissociation of phenol and carboxyl groups in coal molecules, which sharply decreased the concentrations of elements Co and Mo bound to these functional groups in zone I. The modified pore-cleat system in zone I with higher pore volume and lower permeability allowed solutions containing enriched trace elements to migrate through zone I locally. Concentrations of HREE, MREE and related elements associated with the invasive solutions showed significant positive anomalies in zone I. Precipitation and smearing of clay minerals in zone I led to poorer connectivity. Disruption and delamination of laminar clay minerals by strong compression-shear stress significantly increased the adsorption sites for related elements, especially the HREE and MREE. Nano-scale clay minerals resulting from stress-induced scaly exfoliation also enhanced the retention capability of REE in zone I.
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9
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Nanocrystalline Principal Slip Zones and Their Role in Controlling Crustal Fault Rheology. MINERALS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/min9060328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Principal slip zones (PSZs) are narrow (<10 cm) bands of localized shear deformation that occur in the cores of upper-crustal fault zones where they accommodate the bulk of fault displacement. Natural and experimentally-formed PSZs consistently show the presence of nanocrystallites in the <100 nm size range. Despite the presumed importance of such nanocrystalline (NC) fault rock in controlling fault mechanical behavior, their prevalence and potential role in controlling natural earthquake cycles remains insufficiently investigated. In this contribution, we summarize the physical properties of NC materials that may have a profound effect on fault rheology, and we review the structural characteristics of NC PSZs observed in natural faults and in experiments. Numerous literature reports show that such zones form in a wide range of faulted rock types, under a wide range of conditions pertaining to seismic and a-seismic upper-crustal fault slip, and frequently show an internal crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) and partial amorphization, as well as forming glossy or “mirror-like” slip surfaces. Given the widespread occurrence of NC PSZs in upper-crustal faults, we suggest that they are of general significance. Specifically, the generally high rates of (diffusion) creep in NC fault rock may play a key role in controlling the depth limits to the seismogenic zone.
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10
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Green HW. Phase-transformation-induced lubrication of earthquake sliding. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2017; 375:rsta.2016.0008. [PMID: 28827426 PMCID: PMC5580448 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2016.0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Frictional failure is not possible at depth in Earth, hence earthquakes deeper than 30-50 km cannot initiate by overcoming dry friction. Moreover, the frequency distribution of earthquakes with depth is bimodal, suggesting another change of mechanism at about 350 km. Here I suggest that the change at 30-50 km is from overcoming dry friction to reduction of effective stress by dehydration embrittlement and that the change at 350 km is due to desiccation of slabs and initiation by phase-transformation-induced faulting. High-speed friction experiments at low pressure indicate that exceeding dry friction provokes shear heating that leads to endothermic reactions and pronounced weakening. Higher-pressure studies show nanocrystalline gouge accompanying dehydration and the highest pressure experiments initiate by exothermic polymorphic phase transformation. Here I discuss the characteristic nanostructures of experiments on high-speed friction and high-pressure faulting and show that all simulated earthquake systems yield very weak transformation-induced lubrication, most commonly nanometric gouge or melt. I also show that phase-transformation-induced faulting of olivine to spinel can propagate into material previously transformed to spinel, apparently by triggering melting analogous to high-speed friction studies at low pressure. These experiments taken as a whole suggest that earthquakes at all depths slide at low frictional resistance by a self-healing pulse mechanism with rapid strength recovery.This article is part of the themed issue 'Faulting, friction and weakening: from slow to fast motion'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry W Green
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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11
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Barber T, Griffith WA. Experimental constraints on dynamic fragmentation as a dissipative process during seismic slip. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2017; 375:rsta.2016.0002. [PMID: 28827424 PMCID: PMC5580446 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2016.0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Various fault damage fabrics, from gouge in the principal slip zone to fragmented and pulverized rocks in the fault damage zone, have been attributed to brittle deformation at high strain rates during earthquake rupture. Past experimental work has shown that there exists a critical threshold in stress-strain rate space through which rock failure transitions from failure along a few discrete fracture planes to intense fragmentation. We present new experimental results on Arkansas Novaculite (AN) and Westerly Granite (WG) in which we quantify fracture surface area produced by dynamic fragmentation under uniaxial compressive loading and examine the controls of pre-existing mineral anisotropy on dissipative processes at the microscale. Tests on AN produced substantially greater new fracture surface area (approx. 6.0 m2 g-1) than those on WG (0.07 m2 g-1). Estimates of the portion of energy dissipated into brittle fracture were significant for WG (approx. 5%), but appeared substantial in AN (10% to as much as 40%). The results have important implications for the partitioning of dissipated energy under extreme loading conditions expected during earthquakes and the scaling of high-speed laboratory rock mechanics experiments to natural fault zones.This article is part of the themed issue 'Faulting, friction and weakening: from slow to fast motion'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Troy Barber
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
| | - W Ashley Griffith
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
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12
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Rice JR. Heating, weakening and shear localization in earthquake rupture. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2017; 375:rsta.2016.0015. [PMID: 28827427 PMCID: PMC5580449 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2016.0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Field and borehole observations of active earthquake fault zones show that shear is often localized to principal deforming zones of order 0.1-10 mm width. This paper addresses how frictional heating in rapid slip weakens faults dramatically, relative to their static frictional strength, and promotes such intense localization. Pronounced weakening occurs even on dry rock-on-rock surfaces, due to flash heating effects, at slip rates above approximately 0.1 m s-1 (earthquake slip rates are typically of the order of 1 m s-1). But weakening in rapid shear is also predicted theoretically in thick fault gouge in the presence of fluids (whether native ground fluids or volatiles such as H2O or CO2 released by thermal decomposition reactions), and the predicted localizations are compatible with such narrow shear zones as have been observed. The underlying concepts show how fault zone materials with high static friction coefficients, approximately 0.6-0.8, can undergo strongly localized shear at effective dynamic friction coefficients of the order of 0.1, thus fitting observational constraints, e.g. of earthquakes producing negligible surface heat outflow and, for shallow events, only rarely creating extensive melt. The results to be summarized include those of collaborative research published with Nicolas Brantut (University College London), Eric Dunham (Stanford University), Nadia Lapusta (Caltech), Hiroyuki Noda (JAMSTEC, Japan), John D. Platt (Carnegie Institution for Science, now at *gramLabs), Alan Rempel (Oregon State University) and John W. Rudnicki (Northwestern University).This article is part of the themed issue 'Faulting, friction and weakening: from slow to fast motion'.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Rice
- School of Engineering and Applied Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
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13
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Verberne BA, Plümper O, de Winter DAM, Spiers CJ. Rock mechanics. Superplastic nanofibrous slip zones control seismogenic fault friction. Science 2014; 346:1342-4. [PMID: 25504714 DOI: 10.1126/science.1259003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the internal mechanisms controlling fault friction is crucial for understanding seismogenic slip on active faults. Displacement in such fault zones is frequently localized on highly reflective (mirrorlike) slip surfaces, coated with thin films of nanogranular fault rock. We show that mirror-slip surfaces developed in experimentally simulated calcite faults consist of aligned nanogranular chains or fibers that are ductile at room conditions. These microstructures and associated frictional data suggest a fault-slip mechanism resembling classical Ashby-Verrall superplasticity, capable of producing unstable fault slip. Diffusive mass transfer in nanocrystalline calcite gouge is shown to be fast enough for this mechanism to control seismogenesis in limestone terrains. With nanogranular fault surfaces becoming increasingly recognized in crustal faults, the proposed mechanism may be generally relevant to crustal seismogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berend A Verberne
- Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD, Utrecht, Netherlands.
| | - Oliver Plümper
- Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | | | - Christopher J Spiers
- Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD, Utrecht, Netherlands
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14
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Automated Ultrafiltration Device for Environmental Nanoparticle Research and Implications: A Review. MICROMACHINES 2013. [DOI: 10.3390/mi4020215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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15
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Chang JC, Lockner DA, Reches Z. Rapid acceleration leads to rapid weakening in earthquake-like laboratory experiments. Science 2012; 338:101-5. [PMID: 23042892 DOI: 10.1126/science.1221195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
After nucleation, a large earthquake propagates as an expanding rupture front along a fault. This front activates countless fault patches that slip by consuming energy stored in Earth's crust. We simulated the slip of a fault patch by rapidly loading an experimental fault with energy stored in a spinning flywheel. The spontaneous evolution of strength, acceleration, and velocity indicates that our experiments are proxies of fault-patch behavior during earthquakes of moment magnitude (M(w)) = 4 to 8. We show that seismically determined earthquake parameters (e.g., displacement, velocity, magnitude, or fracture energy) can be used to estimate the intensity of the energy release during an earthquake. Our experiments further indicate that high acceleration imposed by the earthquake's rupture front quickens dynamic weakening by intense wear of the fault zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Chang
- Geology and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma, 100 East Boyd Street, Norman, OK 73019, USA
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Noda H, Kanagawa K, Hirose T, Inoue A. Frictional experiments of dolerite at intermediate slip rates with controlled temperature: Rate weakening or temperature weakening? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jb007945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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17
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Tsao TM, Chen YM, Wang MK. Origin, separation and identification of environmental nanoparticles: a review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 13:1156-63. [PMID: 21505694 DOI: 10.1039/c1em10013k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The biogeochemical and ecological impacts of environmental nanoparticles (ENPs) are some of the fastest growing areas of research today. However, efficient separation and collection of ENPs in natural systems remains difficult. This review article is focused on experimental investigation of separation and identification of ENPs, including nanoparticles with size fractions in the range of <2000, 450 to 2000, 100 to 450 and 1 to 100 nm. An automated ultrafiltration device (AUD) was used successfully to overcome the problem of efficiently collecting ENPs in large quantities in red soils. A significant amount of hematite nanoparticles was present on the surface coating of kaolinite nanoparticles and aggregated hematite nanoparticles overlapping the edge of a kaolinite flake in a size range of 5 to 8 nm. Synchrotron XRD technique is more straightforward and powerful than conventional XRD with oriented specimens and random powder methods for identifying nanoparticles, crystallinity, and particle size in red soils, particularly for the illite, kaolinite, goethite and hematite nanoparticles. The AUD apparatus can be employed to efficiently collect large quantities of soil and related ENPs for investigation of their structural characteristics and surface properties, which have significant impact on weathering reaction pathways, catalysis, the fate of vital elements and environmental pollutants, and ecosystem restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsung M Tsao
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
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Savage HM, Brodsky EE. Collateral damage: Evolution with displacement of fracture distribution and secondary fault strands in fault damage zones. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jb007665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Bizzarri A. On the relations between fracture energy and physical observables in dynamic earthquake models. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jb007027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Di Toro G, Niemeijer A, Tripoli A, Nielsen S, Di Felice F, Scarlato P, Spada G, Alessandroni R, Romeo G, Di Stefano G, Smith S, Spagnuolo E, Mariano S. From field geology to earthquake simulation: a new state-of-the-art tool to investigate rock friction during the seismic cycle (SHIVA). RENDICONTI LINCEI 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s12210-010-0097-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Kitajima H, Chester JS, Chester FM, Shimamoto T. High-speed friction of disaggregated ultracataclasite in rotary shear: Characterization of frictional heating, mechanical behavior, and microstructure evolution. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jb007038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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22
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Hirono T, Hamada Y. Specific heat capacity and thermal diffusivity and their temperature dependencies in a rock sample from adjacent to the Taiwan Chelungpu fault. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jb006816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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23
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Daub EG, Manning ML, Carlson JM. Pulse-like, crack-like, and supershear earthquake ruptures with shear strain localization. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jb006388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Powers PM, Jordan TH. Distribution of seismicity across strike-slip faults in California. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jb006234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Han R, Hirose T, Shimamoto T. Strong velocity weakening and powder lubrication of simulated carbonate faults at seismic slip rates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jb006136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Fulton PM, Saffer DM. Effect of thermal refraction on heat flow near the San Andreas Fault, Parkfield, California. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jb005796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Daniels KE, Hayman NW. Force chains in seismogenic faults visualized with photoelastic granular shear experiments. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jb005781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Brantut N, Schubnel A, Rouzaud JN, Brunet F, Shimamoto T. High-velocity frictional properties of a clay-bearing fault gouge and implications for earthquake mechanics. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jb005551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Aagaard BT, Heaton TH. Constraining fault constitutive behavior with slip and stress heterogeneity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jb004793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Biegel RL, Sammis CG, Rosakis AJ. An experimental study of the effect of off-fault damage on the velocity of a slip pulse. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jb005234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Beeler NM, Tullis TE, Goldsby DL. Constitutive relationships and physical basis of fault strength due to flash heating. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jb004988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Determination of the adhesion force between particles and a flat surface, using the centrifuge technique. POWDER TECHNOL 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2006.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Ma KF, Tanaka H, Song SR, Wang CY, Hung JH, Tsai YB, Mori J, Song YF, Yeh EC, Soh W, Sone H, Kuo LW, Wu HY. Slip zone and energetics of a large earthquake from the Taiwan Chelungpu-fault Drilling Project. Nature 2006; 444:473-6. [PMID: 17122854 DOI: 10.1038/nature05253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2006] [Accepted: 09/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Determining the seismic fracture energy during an earthquake and understanding the associated creation and development of a fault zone requires a combination of both seismological and geological field data. The actual thickness of the zone that slips during the rupture of a large earthquake is not known and is a key seismological parameter in understanding energy dissipation, rupture processes and seismic efficiency. The 1999 magnitude-7.7 earthquake in Chi-Chi, Taiwan, produced large slip (8 to 10 metres) at or near the surface, which is accessible to borehole drilling and provides a rare opportunity to sample a fault that had large slip in a recent earthquake. Here we present the retrieved cores from the Taiwan Chelungpu-fault Drilling Project and identify the main slip zone associated with the Chi-Chi earthquake. The surface fracture energy estimated from grain sizes in the gouge zone of the fault sample was directly compared to the seismic fracture energy determined from near-field seismic data. From the comparison, the contribution of gouge surface energy to the earthquake breakdown work is quantified to be 6 per cent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuo-Fong Ma
- Department of Earth Sciences, National Central University, Chung-Li 32054, Taiwan.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R. Rice
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences and Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences; Harvard University; Cambridge Massachusetts USA
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Kanamori H, Rivera L. Energy partitioning during an earthquake. EARTHQUAKES: RADIATED ENERGY AND THE PHYSICS OF FAULTING 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/170gm03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Shipton ZK, Evans JP, Abercrombie RE, Brodsky EE. The missing sinks: Slip localization in faults, damage zones, and the seismic energy budget. EARTHQUAKES: RADIATED ENERGY AND THE PHYSICS OF FAULTING 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/170gm22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Beeler NM. Inferring earthquake source properties from laboratory observations and the scope of lab contributions to source physics. EARTHQUAKES: RADIATED ENERGY AND THE PHYSICS OF FAULTING 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/170gm12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Sibson RH, Toy VG. The habitat of fault-generated pseudotachylyte: Presence vs. absence of friction-melt. EARTHQUAKES: RADIATED ENERGY AND THE PHYSICS OF FAULTING 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/170gm16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Cocco M, Spudich P, Tinti E. On the mechanical work absorbed on faults during earthquake ruptures. EARTHQUAKES: RADIATED ENERGY AND THE PHYSICS OF FAULTING 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/170gm24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Tinti E, Spudich P, Cocco M. Earthquake fracture energy inferred from kinematic rupture models on extended faults. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1029/2005jb003644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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