Introduction of Novel Genes into Fish

Progress and biotechnological prospects in fish transgenesis

The history of transgenesis is marked by milestones such as the development of cellular transdifferentiation, recombinant DNA, genetic modification of target cells, and finally, the generation of simpler genetically modified organisms (e.g. bacteria and mice). The first transgenic fish was developed in 1984, and since then, continuing technological advancements to improve gene transfer have led to more rapid, accurate, and efficient generation of transgenic animals. Among the established methods are microinjection, electroporation, lipofection, viral vectors, and gene targeting. Here, we review the history of animal transgenesis, with an emphasis on fish, in conjunction with major developments in genetic engineering over the past few decades. Importantly, spermatogonial stem cell modification and transplantation are two common techniques capable of revolutionizing the generation of transgenic fish. Furthermore, we discuss recent progress and future biotechnological prospects of fish transgenesis, which has strong applications for the aquaculture industry. Indeed, some transgenic fish are already available in the current market, validating continued efforts to improve economically important species with biotechnological advancements.

Site-directed gene integration in transgenic zebrafish mediated by cre recombinase using a combination of mutant lox sites

With current gene-transfer techniques in fish, insertion of DNA into the genome occurs randomly and in many instances at multiple sites. Associated position effects, copy number differences, and multiple gene interactions make gene expression experiments difficult to interpret and fish phenotype less predictable. To meet different fish engineering needs, we describe here a gene targeting model in zebrafish. At first, four target zebrafish lines, each harboring a single genomic lox71 target site, were generated by zebrafish transgenesis. The zygotes of transgenic zebrafish lines were coinjected with capped Cre mRNA and a knockin vector pZklox66RFP. Site-specific integration event happened from one target zebrafish line. In this line two integrant zebrafish were obtained from more than 80,000 targeted embryos (integrating efficiency about 10(-4) to 10(-5)) and confirmed to have a sole copy of the integrating DNA at the target genome site. Genomic polymerase chain reaction analysis and DNA sequencing verified the correct gene target events where lox71 and lox66 have accurately recombined into double mutant lox72 and wild-type loxP. Each integrant zebrafish chosen for analysis harbored the transgene rfp at the designated egfp concatenates. Although the Cre-mediated recombination is site specific, it is dependent on a randomly placed target site. That is, a genomic target cannot be preselected for integration based solely on its sequence. Conclusively, an rfp reporter gene was successfully inserted into the egfp target locus of zebrafish genome by Cre-lox-mediated recombination. This site-directed knockin system using the lox71/lox66 combination should be a promising gene-targeting platform serving various purposes in fish genetic engineering.

Status and opportunities for genomics research with rainbow trout

The rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is one of the most widely studied of model fish species. Extensive basic biological information has been collected for this species, which because of their large size relative to other model fish species are particularly suitable for studies requiring ample quantities of specific cells and tissue types. Rainbow trout have been widely utilized for research in carcinogenesis, toxicology, comparative immunology, disease ecology, physiology and nutrition. They are distinctive in having evolved from a relatively recent tetraploid event, resulting in a high incidence of duplicated genes. Natural populations are available and have been well characterized for chromosomal, protein, molecular and quantitative genetic variation. Their ease of culture, and experimental and aquacultural significance has led to the development of clonal lines and the widespread application of transgenic technology to this species. Numerous microsatellites have been isolated and two relatively detailed genetic maps have been developed. Extensive sequencing of expressed sequence tags has begun and four BAC libraries have been developed. The development and analysis of additional genomic sequence data will provide distinctive opportunities to address problems in areas such as evolution of the immune system and duplicate genes.

Transgene and host growth hormone gene expression in pituitary and nonpituitary tissues of normal and growth hormone transgenic salmon

Growth hormone (GH) gene expression has been examined in control and transgenic coho salmon containing a transgene comprised of the sockeye salmon GH1 gene under the control of the MT-B promoter from the same species. This transgene dramatically enhances the growth of salmonids, and raises serum GH levels some forty-fold. Transcript levels from this transgene were detected by RT-PCR using construct-specific GH primers in all tissues examined (liver, kidney, skin, intestine, stomach, muscle, spleen, pyloric caeca), and ranged from 0.1 - 9.4 pg/50 microg total RNA in different tissues as estimated by dot blot analysis. Interestingly, GH gene expression was also observed in intestine of control coho salmon by RT-PCR capable of detecting host and transgene transcripts using general primers. Sequence analysis of the intestinal GH mRNA from controls indicated it was derived from the coho GH2 gene. GH mRNA abundance analyzed by northern analysis indicates lower levels are found in large (400-500 g) than small transgenic salmon (20-21 g). No molecular evidence for transgene expression was obtained in tissues from transgenic fry, despite an obvious increase in size relative to control siblings, suggesting very low levels of transgene expression early in development. GH mRNA levels (per microg RNA) were also examined in the pituitary gland, and were found to be significantly lower (P < 0.01) in transgenic coho compared to nontransgenic animals of the same size. Pituitary glands of transgenic animals were also smaller than control animals of the same size, and pituitary size, expressed as a proportion of body weight, decreased with body size in transgenic but not control animals. These results imply that pituitary GH expression is regulated by negative feed-back controls as occurs in other vertebrate systems. GH mRNA was examined in pituitary glands by whole-mount in situ hybridization, and, whereas overall levels appeared reduced in transgenic animals, the site of hybridization did not differ between transgenic and control glands.

Regulation and expression of transgenes in fish -- a review

Transgenic fish, owing to a number of advantages which they offer over other species, are proving to be valuable model systems for the study of gene regulation and development genetics in addition to being useful targets for the genetic manipulation of commercially important traits. Despite having begun only a decade ago, the production of transgenic fish has become commonplace in a number of laboratories world-wide and considerable progress has been made. In this review, we initially consider the various regulatory elements and coding genes which have been used in fish, and subsequently discuss and compare both the transient and long-term fate and expression patterns of injected DNA sequences in the context of the different factors which are likely to have an effect on the expression of transgenes.

Hormonal replacement therapy in fish:human growth hormone gene function in hypophysectomized carp

Transgenic common carp,Cyprinus carpio, produced by the microinjection of fertilized eggs with a linearized chimeric plasmid pMThGH, a human growth hormone (hGH) gene with a mouse metallothionein-1 (MT) gene promoter in pBR322, were used to produce F1 and F2 transgenics. Following hypophysectomy of the transgenic F2 common carp, non-transgenic common carp and non-transgenic crucian carp, growth was monitored for up to 110 days. In addition, recombinant hGH was injected subcutaenously into a group of the non-transgenic crucian carp. Growth rate analyses indicated that (1) hypophysectomy of non-transgenic common carp and crucian carp results in the cessation of growth, (2) hGH administration can stimulate the growth of hypophysectomized crucian carp and (3) hypophysectomized hGH-transgenic common carp continue to grow in the absence of their own growth hormone, suggesting that the hGH-transgene is being expressed in tissues other than the pituitary.

Transgenesis in fish

Gene transfer into fish embryo is being performed in several species (trout, salmon, carps, tilapia, medaka, goldfish, zebrafish, loach, catfish, etc.). In most cases, pronuclei are not visible and microinjection must be done into the cytoplasm of early embryos. Several million copies of the gene are generally injected. In medaka, transgenesis was attempted by injection of the foreign gene into the nucleus of oocyte. Several reports indicate that the injected DNA was rapidly replicated in the early phase of embryo development, regardless of the origin and the sequence of the foreign DNA. The survival of the injected embryos was reasonably good and a large number reached maturity. The proportion of transgenic animals ranged from 1 to 50% or more, according to species and to experimentators. The reasons for this discrepancy have not been elucidated. In all species, the transgenic animals were mosaic. The copy number of the foreign DNA was different in the various tissues of an animal and a proportion lower than 50% of F1 offsprings received the gene from their parents. This suggests that the foreign DNA was integrated into the fish genome at the two cells stage or later. An examination of the integrated DNA in different cell types of an animal revealed that integration occurred mainly during early development. The transgene was found essentially unrearranged in the fish genome of the founders and offsprings. The transgenes were therefore stably transmitted to progeny in a Mendelian fashion. Southern blot analysis revealed the presence of possible junction fragments and also of minor bands which may result from a rearrangement of the injected DNA. In all species, the integrated DNA appeared mainly as random end-to-end concatemers. In adult trout blood cells, a small proportion of the foreign DNA was maintained in the form of non-integrated concatemers, as judged by the existence of end fragments. The transgenes were generally only poorly expressed. The majority of the injected gene constructs contained essentially mammalian or higher vertebrates sequences. The comparison of the expression efficiency of these constructs in transfected fish and mammalian cells indicates that some of the mammalian DNA sequences are most efficiently understood by the fish cell machinery. Chloramphenicol acetyl transferase gene under the control of promoters from Rous sarcoma virus, and human cytomegalovirus, was expressed in several tissues of transgenic fish. Chicken delta-crystallin gene was expressed in several tissues of transgenic fish.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Development of expression vectors for transgenic fish

Genetic alteration of fish is important for aquatic biotechnology as well as for investigating molecular interactions that occur during vertebrate development. The numerous, large, transparent, and externally fertilized eggs of many fish species make them ideally suitable for genetic manipulation, especially for production of transgenic animals. Genetic engineering of fish requires suitable expression vectors. Accordingly, we developed two fish expression vectors, FV-1 and FV-2, which contain the proximal promoter and enhancer regulatory elements of the carp beta-actin gene and the polyadenylation signal from the salmon growth hormone gene. The two fish expression vectors were tested in microinjected fish eggs and in tissue cultured fish and mammalian cells. These two "all-fish" expression vectors should be useful for genetic engineering of fish and have been used with growth-enhancing genes in transgenic fish.

Transient expression of foreign DNA during embryonic and larval development of the medaka fish (Oryzias latipes)

Species of small fish are becoming useful tools for studies on vertebrate development. We have investigated the developing embryo of the Japanese medaka for its application as a transient expression system for the in vivo analysis of gene regulation and function. The temporal and spatial expression patterns of bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase and galactosidase reporter genes injected in supercoiled plasmid form into the cytoplasm of one cell of the two-cell stage embryo was promoter-specific. The transient expression was found to be mosaic within the tissue and organs reflecting the unequal distribution of extrachromosomal foreign DNA and the intensive cell mixing movements that occur in fish embryogenesis. The expression data are consistent with data on DNA fate. Foreign DNA persisted during embryogenesis and was still detectable in some 3- and 9-month-old adult fish; it was found in high molecular weight form as well as in circular plasmid conformations. The DNA was replicated during early and late embryogenesis. Our data indicate that the developing medaka embryo is a powerful in vivo assay system for studies of gene regulation and function.

Electroporation as a new technique for producing transgenic fish

A recombinant plasmid, pMV-GH, containing rainbow trout growth hormone cDNA fused to mouse metallothionein I promoter, was introduced into medaka (Oryzias latipes) by electroporation. Of 3109 fertilized eggs treated with electric pulses (750 V/cm, 50 microseconds, 5 times), 783 (25%) hatched out. Four percent of the hatchlings were transgenic. To obtain transgenic lines, 180 hatchlings were maintained and 35 of them grew into adult fish. Two of these fish were transgenic. When one transgenic fish was mated with a normal female, the transgene was found in all the F1 offspring assayed. In F2 offspring obtained by mating transgenic F1 fish, 88% were transgenic.

Characterization of transgenic livestock production

The objective of transgenic livestock improvement projects is to develop and bring to market superior breeding stock, as well as germplasm for the artificial insemination and embryo transfer industries. Livestock animal biotechnology programs hold the promise of achieving, in a single generation, improvements in commercially important livestock species previously possible only through long-term traditional selective breeding practices or by chance mutation. Transgenic farm animals harboring growth hormone or metabolically related structural genes have been created. Studies of these animals demonstrate the effects of inadequate regulation of transgene expression. Research continues to explore the intricacies of developmental regulation of such genes and phenotypic consequences of mammalian gene transfer. Ultimately, genetically engineered livestock will provide producers with the benefit of increased production efficiencies while the consumer will have healthier animal food products. Conceivably, products will be produced with lower levels of fat, cholesterol, feed additives and pharmaceutical residues from animals with altered carcass composition that will result in greater nutritional benefit for the consumer.

Fish as model systems

Fish represent the largest and most diverse group of vertebrates. Their evolutionary position relative to other vertebrates and their ability to adapt to a wide variety of environments make them ideal for studying both organismic and molecular evolution. A number of other characteristics make them excellent experimental models for studies in embryology, neurobiology, endocrinology, environmental biology, and other areas. In fact, they have played a critical role in the development of several of these disciplines. Research techniques that enable scientists to make isogenic lines in a single generation, create and maintain mutants, culture cells, and transfer cloned genes into embryos signal an increasing role for fish as experimental models.

Expression and fate of CAT reporter gene microinjected into fertilized medaka (Oryzias latipes) eggs in the form of plasmid DNA, recombinant phage particles and its DNA

Fertilized medaka (Oryzias latipes) eggs were cytoplasmically injected with the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene encompassed in supercoiled and linear plasmid DNA, as well as in intact recombinant phage particles and DNA isolated from the phage. Expression for the CAT plasmid DNA was highest at the gastrula/neurula stage, while for the DNA of the phage, it peaked in the 1-week old embryo; then expression declined but was still detectable in early adulthood (4 weeks post injection). Following the fate of exogenous DNA, an extensive replication was observed in early embryogenesis, and DNA was still found 4 weeks after injection, suggesting a possibility of integration. The system is useful as a transient expression system for the analysis of early developmental genes in particular, but also as a test system for the analysis of cloned genes of interest for the farming of economically important fish species. The fact that DNA transferred in intact phage particles or its DNA is functionally active opens the possibility to introduce larger DNA pieces (20 kb), e.g., for the functional test of larger and more distant control regions.

Stage-dependent expression of the chicken delta-crystallin gene in transgenic fish embryos

To study the regulation of gene expression of vertebrate crystallin genes, the chicken delta-crystallin gene was introduced into a small freshwater fish, medaka (Oryzias latipes), which lacks this gene, and its expression was examined immunohistologically at several developmental stages before hatching. The gene expression was detected in the central fiber cells of the lens at an early stage, showing a stage-dependent expression. In non-lens tissues, the expression was barely detectable before tissue differentiation. It first became substantial mainly in mesodermal tissues and then later in a greater variety of tissues, including ectodermal and endodermal ones. Thus, the non-lens expression of delta-crystallin was also stage-dependent, with the stage being dependent on the tissue type. These results from lens and non-lens tissues are discussed in relation to tissue differentiation and two categories of delta-crystallin expression.

Transgenic fish: present status and future directions

Successful production of transgenic fish by gene transfer technology is a very important breakthrough in the techniques of genetic manipulation in animals. This will have an impact of an unprecedented scale in fish biology, aquaculture and mariculture. This is a summary of the workshop on the Transgenic Fish presented at this Symposium. The Workshop discussed the current knowledge, experimental difficulties and related topics of the transgenic fish. It recommended further research on better gene constructs, methods development, safety containment and the closer collaboration of researchers of different disciplines.

Microinjection and expression of a mouse metallothionein human growth hormone fusion gene in fertilized salmonid eggs

Using a microinjection method (Rokkones et al. 1985) deoxyribonucleic acid was introduced into fertilized salmonid eggs. The survival rate after a 28 day period was 91% for injected eggs in comparison to non-injected controls. A gene construct containing the mouse metallothionein promoter fused to the human growth hormone structural gene was microinjected either as a supercoiled plasmid or as a linear sequence. In Southern blot analysis of both 5 and 73 day old dissected rainbow trout embryos, as well as in 1 year old Atlantic salmon, the mouse metallothionein human growth hormone gene sequence was detected together with the chromosomal DNA when micro-injected as plasmid or as linear DNA. After digestion with Bam HI restriction endonuclease, the human growth hormone gene was excised from the high molecular weight DNA fraction. Transcription into human growth hormone specific RNA, as well as translation and release of human growth hormone immunoreactive protein, could be demonstrated in early embryonic stages.