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Abstract
The CD8+ T cell noncytotoxic antiviral response (CNAR) was discovered during studies of asymptomatic HIV-infected subjects more than 30 years ago. In contrast to CD8+ T cell cytotoxic lymphocyte (CTL) activity, CNAR suppresses HIV replication without target cell killing. This activity has characteristics of innate immunity: it acts on all retroviruses and thus is neither epitope specific nor HLA restricted. The HIV-associated CNAR does not affect other virus families. It is mediated, at least in part, by a CD8+ T cell antiviral factor (CAF) that blocks HIV transcription. A variety of assays used to measure CNAR/CAF and the effects on other retrovirus infections are described. Notably, CD8+ T cell noncytotoxic antiviral responses have now been observed with other virus families but are mediated by different cytokines. Characterizing the protein structure of CAF has been challenging despite many biologic, immunologic, and molecular studies. It represents a low-abundance protein that may be identified by future next-generation sequencing approaches. Since CNAR/CAF is a natural noncytotoxic activity, it could provide promising strategies for HIV/AIDS therapy, cure, and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maelig G Morvan
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Fernando C Teque
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | - Jay A Levy
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
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−295 T-to-C promoter region IL-16 gene polymorphism is associated with Whipple’s disease. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2015; 34:1919-21. [DOI: 10.1007/s10096-015-2433-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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3
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Mannie MD, Abbott DJ. A fusion protein consisting of IL-16 and the encephalitogenic peptide of myelin basic protein constitutes an antigen-specific tolerogenic vaccine that inhibits experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:1458-65. [PMID: 17641011 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.3.1458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
To test a novel concept for the generation of tolerogenic vaccines, fusion proteins were constructed encompassing a tolerogenic or biasing cytokine and the major encephalitogenic peptide of guinea pig myelin basic protein (GPMBP; i.e., neuroantigen or NAg). The cytokine domain was predicted to condition APC while simultaneously targeting the covalently linked encephalitogenic peptide to the MHC class II Ag processing pathway of those conditioned APC. Rats were given three s.c. injections of cytokine-NAg in saline 1-2 wk apart and then at least 1 wk later were challenged with NAg in CFA. The rank order of tolerogenic activity in the Lewis rat model of EAE was NAgIL16 > IL2NAg > IL1RA-NAg, IL13NAg >or= IL10NAg, GPMBP, GP69-88, and saline. NAgIL16 was also an effective inhibitor of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis when administered after an encephalitogenic challenge during the onset of clinical signs. Covalent linkage of the NAg and IL-16 was required for inhibition of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. These data identify IL-16 as an optimal cytokine partner for the generation of tolerogenic vaccines and indicate that such vaccines may serve as Ag-specific tolerogens for the treatment of autoimmune disease.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Cell Line
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/genetics
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/prevention & control
- Epitopes/administration & dosage
- Epitopes/genetics
- Epitopes/immunology
- Guinea Pigs
- Immune Tolerance/genetics
- Interleukin-16/administration & dosage
- Interleukin-16/genetics
- Interleukin-16/immunology
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Myelin Basic Protein/administration & dosage
- Myelin Basic Protein/genetics
- Myelin Basic Protein/immunology
- Peptide Fragments/administration & dosage
- Peptide Fragments/genetics
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred Lew
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/administration & dosage
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/immunology
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, DNA/genetics
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Mannie
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA.
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Mosoian A, Teixeira A, High AA, Christian RE, Hunt DF, Shabanowitz J, Liu X, Klotman M. Novel function of prothymosin alpha as a potent inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gene expression in primary macrophages. J Virol 2006; 80:9200-6. [PMID: 16940531 PMCID: PMC1563913 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00589-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
CD8(+) T lymphocytes control human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection by a cytotoxic major histocompatibility complex-restricted pathway as well as by secretion of noncytotoxic soluble inhibitory factors. Several components of CD8(+) cell supernatants have been identified that contribute to the latter activity. In this study we report that prothymosin alpha (ProTalpha), a protein found in the cell culture medium of the herpesvirus saimiri-transformed CD8(+) T-cell line, K#1 50K, has potent HIV-1-inhibitory activity. Depletion of native ProTalpha from an HIV-1-inhibitory fraction of CD8(+) cell supernatants removes the inhibitory activity, supporting its role in inhibition via soluble mediators. ProTalpha is an abundant, acidic peptide that has been reported to be localized in the nucleus and associated with cell proliferation and activation of transcription. In this report we demonstrate that ProTalpha suppresses HIV-1 replication, its activity is target cell specific, and inhibition occurs following viral integration. Native and recombinant ProTalpha protein potently inhibit HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR)-driven gene expression in macrophages. Furthermore studies using different promoters in lentiviral vectors (cytomegalovirus and phosphoglycerate kinase) revealed that suppression of viral replication by ProTalpha is not HIV LTR specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arevik Mosoian
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Box 1090, New York, NY 10029, USA
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Clapham PR, McKnight Á. Cell surface receptors, virus entry and tropism of primate lentiviruses. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:1809-1829. [PMID: 12124446 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-8-1809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) exploits cell surface receptors to attach to and gain entry into cells. The HIV envelope spike glycoprotein on the surface of virus particles binds both CD4 and a seven-transmembrane coreceptor. These interactions trigger conformational changes in the envelope spike that induce fusion of viral and cellular membranes and entry of the viral core into the cell cytoplasm. Other cell surface receptors also interact with gp120 and aid attachment of virus particles. This review describes these receptors, their roles in HIV entry and their influence on cell tropism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul R Clapham
- Center for AIDS Research, Program in Molecular Medicine, Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Biotech II, 373, Plantation Street, Worcester. MA 01605, USA1
| | - Áine McKnight
- The Wohl Virion Center, Department of Immunology and Molecular Pathology, The Windeyer Institute for Medical Sciences, University College London, 46 Cleveland Street, London W1P 6DB, UK2
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Bader A, Brockmeyer N, Schnaitmann E, Mertins L, Otteken A, Kurth R, Werner A. Interleukin-16 serum levels during the course of HIV-1 infection. AIDS 2001; 15:528-9. [PMID: 11242152 DOI: 10.1097/00002030-200103090-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A Bader
- University of Bochum, Germany
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Schwab JM, Nguyen TD, Meyermann R, Schluesener HJ. Human focal cerebral infarctions induce differential lesional interleukin-16 (IL-16) expression confined to infiltrating granulocytes, CD8+ T-lymphocytes and activated microglia/macrophages. J Neuroimmunol 2001; 114:232-41. [PMID: 11240037 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(00)00433-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Focal cerebral ischemia elicits a strong inflammatory response which readily participates in lipid oxygenation, edema formation, apoptotic cell death and tissue remodeling. Within these conditions, cytokines are key players of cell activation and are crucial for delayed mechanisms of ischemic damage. Mature IL-16 is an immunomodulatory cytokine, exerting CD4 dependent and independent effects and is characterized by chemotactic activity, induction of early gene phosphorylation, stimulation of pro-inflammatory IL-1beta, IL-6, TNFalpha expression in monocytic cells and also modulates apoptosis. We have now analyzed expression of IL-16 in 20 brains of patients following focal cerebral infarctions (FCI, n=20). Compared to normal control brains (n=3), IL-16 was expressed by infiltrating immune cells such as neutrophils, CD8+ lymphocytes and activated CD68+ microglia/macrophages accumulating in lesion associated reactive zones and in peri-vascular regions. IL-16+ cells accumulated significantly (P<0.0001) in the necrotic lesion and at bordering peri-lesional areas at day 1-2 reaching maximum levels at day 3-4 (P<0.0001). Also, peri-vascular IL-16+ cells reached maximum levels at day 3-4 (P<0.0001) following infarction and decreased after several weeks. During the early microglial activation period, IL-16+ microglia/macrophages coexpress the activation antigen MRP-8. The accumulation of IL-16+ granulocytes, IL-16+, CD8+ lymphocytes and activated IL-16+, CD68+, CD4- microglia/macrophages, early after infarction suggest a CD4 independent, paracrine role of IL-16 in the postinjury inflammatory response, such as recruitment and activation of immune cells leading to microvessel clustering and blood-brain barrier disturbance resulting in secondary damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Schwab
- Institute of Brain Research, University of Tuebingen, Medical School, Calwer Str. 3, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany.
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Mathy NL, Scheuer W, Lanzendörfer M, Honold K, Ambrosius D, Norley S, Kurth R. Interleukin-16 stimulates the expression and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by human monocytes. Immunology 2000; 100:63-9. [PMID: 10809960 PMCID: PMC2326980 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.2000.00997.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-16 (IL-16) acts as a chemoattractant for CD4+ cells, as a modulator of T-cell activation, and plays a key role in asthma. This report describes the cytokine-inducing effects of IL-16 on total peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and PBMC subpopulations. While CD4+ T lymphocytes did not secrete cytokines in response to rhIL-16, CD14+ CD4+ monocytes and maturing macrophages secrete IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-15 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) upon rhIL-16 stimulation. The mRNA species for these four cytokines were detected as early as 4 hr post-stimulation, with protein being secreted by 24 hr. Secretion of IL-1beta and IL-6 by total PBMC was dose dependent, with maximal secretion being observed using 50 ng/ml rhIL-16. However, for IL-15 or TNF-alpha maximal secretion by total PBMC occurred with all concentrations between 5 ng/ml to 500 ng/ml rhIL-16. Purified monocytes/macrophages secreted maximal concentrations of all four cytokines in the presence of 500 ng/ml rhIL-16, except for monocytes where maximal secretion of IL-15 was, interestingly, observed with only 50 ng/ml rhIL-16. The use of higher concentrations of rhIL-16 (1000 ng/ml) inhibited secretion of all four cytokines. While these IL-16-induced cytokines are likely to be involved in the immune system's response to antigen, the data suggest that IL-16 may play a key role in initiating and/or sustaining an inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- N L Mathy
- Paul-Ehrlich-Institute, Langen, Germany and Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Pharma Research, Penzberg, Germany
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De Paoli P, Zanussi S, Caggiari L, Bortolin MT, D'Andrea M, Simonelli C, Tirelli U. Kinetics of lymphokine production in HIV+ patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy and interleukin 2. J Clin Immunol 1999; 19:317-25. [PMID: 10535609 DOI: 10.1023/a:1020547826191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
This study presents the kinetics of CD4/CD25 cell numbers, serum sCD25 levels, and intracellular production and release of interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interleukin-16 (IL-16) in 11 HIV+ patients treated with six cycles of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) plus six MUI of subcutaneous IL-2 compared to 10 HIV+ patients treated with HAART alone. IL-2 therapy induced moderate effects on CD4 T cell recovery and increased CD4/CD25+ cells and sCD25 levels after 2 weeks, while intracellular and secreted IL-2 was reduced and IL-16 was increased at the same time point. After 24 weeks, while HAART-treated patients had increased IL-2 production, in IL-2 treated patients, cytokine production was unaltered compared to pretreatment values. Decreased in vitro IL-2 production may depend on a feedback inhibition by IL-2 infusion. Because of its known antiviral effects, the increased IL-16 production seen after 2 weeks in IL-2-treated individuals may produce beneficial effects on HIV disease. The kinetics of cytokine production may serve to define better the use IL-2 in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- P De Paoli
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Virology, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico, IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
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10
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Abstract
This paper simplifies and encapsulates the past, present and future for developing vaccines, especially against AIDS. Needed technical information and how it can best be obtained are delineated. The views are my own and may not be shared by others. The science enterprise, including that for vaccines, is enmeshed in the major evolution and restructuring of many of the world's institutions. Changes brought by the knowledge revolution impinge on scientific information, technology, public policy, societal demands, private and public funding, academic and industrial organization and economic opportunity. Public-supported research is not an entitlement. It is in the scientific establishment's best interest to organize for greatest efficiency and effectiveness to bring paybacks commensurate with public investment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Hilleman
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research, West Point, PA 19486, USA
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Franz JK, Kolb SA, Hummel KM, Lahrtz F, Neidhart M, Aicher WK, Pap T, Gay RE, Fontana A, Gay S. Interleukin-16, produced by synovial fibroblasts, mediates chemoattraction for CD4+ T lymphocytes in rheumatoid arthritis. Eur J Immunol 1998; 28:2661-71. [PMID: 9754554 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1521-4141(199809)28:09<2661::aid-immu2661>3.0.co;2-n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The massive infiltration of synovium with CD4+ T cells during the course of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) implies the expression of chemoattractant factors by resident synovial cells. Therefore, we analyzed the expression of IL-16, a potent chemoattractant for CD4+ T cells, to account for the accumulation of CD4+ T cells in RA. Indeed, IL-16 was found to be significantly elevated in synovial fluid (SF) from patients with RA as compared to non-RA arthritis (p < 0.001), osteoarthritis (p < 0.001) and controls (p < 0.001). Chemotaxis studies showed IL-16 to contribute to the strong chemotactic activities of RA-SF. In situ hybridization (ISH) revealed IL-16 mRNA-expressing cells located within the lining layer of rheumatoid synovial tissue. In the sublining area, only scattered IL-16 transcript-positive cells could be detected, mainly adjacent to blood vessels. By a double-labeling technique, combining ISH for IL-16 mRNA and immunohistochemistry for CD68, synovial fibroblast-like, CD68-negative cells were identified as a major source of IL-16 mRNA within RA synovium. This study demonstrates that synovial fibroblasts produce IL-16 in RA and thus mediate chemoattraction of CD4+ cells into synovial tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Franz
- Center of Experimental Rheumatology, Department of Rheumatology, University Hospital, Zürich, Switzerland
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Mühlhahn P, Zweckstetter M, Georgescu J, Ciosto C, Renner C, Lanzendörfer M, Lang K, Ambrosius D, Baier M, Kurth R, Holak TA. Structure of interleukin 16 resembles a PDZ domain with an occluded peptide binding site. NATURE STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 1998; 5:682-6. [PMID: 9699630 DOI: 10.1038/1376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The structure of a folded core of IL-16 is similar to that of intracellular protein modules called PDZ domains. IL-16 is thus the first extracellular protein found to have a PDZ-like fold. However, it does not exhibit normal peptide binding properties of PDZ domains. This is due to alterations of the structure at the 'PDZ-like binding site' of IL-16 (the GLGF cleft): the GLGF cleft of IL-16 is much smaller than those of PDZ-domains and is additionally blocked with a tryptophan side chain at its center. Our experiments indicate also that IL-16 nonspecifically aggregates in solution; but formation of a homo-tetrameric protein is not required, in contrast to previous suggestions, for its chemo-attractant activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Mühlhahn
- Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried, F.R.G., Germany
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13
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Abstract
Vaccinology is the science and engineering of developing vaccines to prevent infectious diseases. Guidelines come from knowledge of pathogenesis and from successful past vaccines. The vaccine enterprise relies on the evolution of appropriate science and technology. Governmental support and industrial participation are key to successful development of new vaccines. A large challenge for vaccinology is a vaccine which protects against AIDS. Though misguided in its first decade, current vaccine research is directed to use of any and all viral antigens and to elicit both cell-mediated and humoral immune responses that are resident, with memory, at the mucosal sites of viral entry. Recent seminal discoveries guiding the future include selective elicitation of both Type 1 and Type 2 immune responses, and prime-boosting using recombinant viral or DNA vectors and expressed antigens. Success in vaccinology depends on simplification of the complex and on iterative processes in a well-defined pathway. The present and future of vaccinology are discussed in depth.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Hilleman
- Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA 19486, USA
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