Predicting the structure of screw dislocations in nanoporous materials

Visualization of nonsingular defect enabling rapid control of structural color

Stimuli-interactive structural color (SC) of a block copolymer (BCP) photonic crystal (PC) uses reversible alteration of the PC using external fluids and applied forces. The origin of the diffusional pathways of a stimulating fluid into a BCP PC has not been examined. Here, we directly visualize the vertically oriented screw dislocations in a one-dimensional lamellar BCP PC that facilitate the rapid response of visible SC. To reveal the diffusional pathway of the solvent via the dislocations, BCP lamellae are swollen with an interpenetrated hydrogel network, allowing fixation of the swollen state and subsequent microscopic examination. The visualized defects are low-energy helicoidal screw dislocations having unique, nonsingular cores. Location and areal density of these dislocations are determined by periodic concentric topographic nanopatterns of the upper surface-reconstructed layer. The nonsingular nature of the interlayer connectivity in the core region demonstrates the beneficial nature of these defects on sensing dynamics.

Role of dislocation elastic field on impurity segregation in Fe-based alloys

Dislocation engineering in crystalline materials is essential when designing materials for a large range of applications. Segregation of additional elements at dislocations is frequently used to modify the influence of dislocations on material properties. Thus, the influence of the dislocation elastic field on impurity segregation is of major interest, as its understanding should lead to engineering solutions that improve the material properties. We report the experimental study of the elastic field influence on atomic segregation in the core and in the area surrounding edge dislocations in Fe-based alloys. Each element is found either to segregate in the edge dislocation core or to form atmospheres. The elastic field has a strong effect on the segregation atmosphere, but no effect on the dislocation core segregation. The theory is in good agreement with experiments, and should support dislocation engineering.

Lattice-plane bending angle modulation of Mg-doped GaN homoepitaxial layer observed by X-ray diffraction topography

We have studied the lattice-plane modulation of Mg-doped GaN homoepitaxial layers by X-ray diffraction topography.

Multimode Electron Tomography as a Tool to Characterize the Internal Structure and Morphology of Gold Nanoparticles

Three dimensional (3D) characterization of structural defects in nanoparticles by transmission electron microscopy is far from straightforward. We propose the use of a dose-efficient approach, so-called multimode tomography, during which tilt series of low and high angle annular dark field scanning transmission electron microscopy projection images are acquired simultaneously. In this manner, not only reliable information can be obtained concerning the shape of the nanoparticles, but also the twin planes can be clearly visualized in 3D. As an example, we demonstrate the application of this approach to identify the position of the seeds with respect to the twinning planes in anisotropic gold nanoparticles synthesized using a seed mediated growth approach.

Creation of Controllable High-Density Defects in Silver Nanowires for Enhanced Catalytic Property

Structural defects have been proven to determine many of the materials' properties. Here, we demonstrate a unique approach to the creation of Ag nanowires with high-density defects through controllable nanoparticles coalescence in one-dimensional pores of mesoporous silica. The density of defects can be easily adjusted by tuning the annealing temperature during synthetic process. The high-density defects promote the adsorption and activation of more reactants on the surface of Ag nanowires during catalytic reactions. As a result, the as-prepared Ag nanowires exhibit enhanced activities in catalyzing dehydrogenative coupling reaction of silane in terms of apparent activation energy and turnover frequency (TOF). We show further that the silane conversion rate can be enhanced by maximizing the defect density and thus the number of active sites on the Ag nanowires, reaching a remarkable TOF of 8288 h(-1), which represents the highest TOF that has been achieved by far on Ag catalysts. This work not only proves the important role of structural defects in catalysis but also provides a new and general strategy for constructing high-density defects in metal catalysts.

Structure, Energetics, and Dynamics of Screw Dislocations in Even n-Alkane Crystals

Spiral hillocks on n-alkane crystal surfaces were observed immediately after Frank recognized the importance of screw dislocations for crystal growth, yet their structures and energies in molecular crystals remain ill-defined. To illustrate the structural chemistry of screw dislocations that are responsible for plasticity in organic crystals and upon which the organic electronics and pharmaceutical industries depend, molecular dynamics was used to examine heterochiral dislocation pairs with Burgers vectors along [001] in n-hexane, n-octane, and n-decane crystals. The cores were anisotropic and elongated in the (110) slip plane, with significant local changes in molecular position, orientation, conformation, and energy. This detailed atomic level picture produced a distribution of strain consistent with linear elastic theory, giving confidence in the simulations. Dislocations with doubled Burgers vectors split into pairs with elementary displacements. These results suggest a pathway to understanding the mechanical properties and failure associated with elastic and plastic deformation in soft crystals.

In silico prediction and screening of modular crystal structures via a high-throughput genomic approach

High-throughput computational methods capable of predicting, evaluating and identifying promising synthetic candidates with desired properties are highly appealing to today's scientists. Despite some successes, in silico design of crystalline materials with complex three-dimensionally extended structures remains challenging. Here we demonstrate the application of a new genomic approach to ABC-6 zeolites, a family of industrially important catalysts whose structures are built from the stacking of modular six-ring layers. The sequences of layer stacking, which we deem the genes of this family, determine the structures and the properties of ABC-6 zeolites. By enumerating these gene-like stacking sequences, we have identified 1,127 most realizable new ABC-6 structures out of 78 groups of 84,292 theoretical ones, and experimentally realized 2 of them. Our genomic approach can extract crucial structural information directly from these gene-like stacking sequences, enabling high-throughput identification of synthetic targets with desired properties among a large number of candidate structures.

High-throughput computation aids design of new functional materials. Here, Yu et al. develop a high-throughput screening method for a group of zeolites with crystalline modular structures which are viewed as having gene-like stacking codes, and identify the most promising structures with desired properties.

Defect-Engineered Metal-Organic Frameworks

Defect engineering in metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) is an exciting concept for tailoring material properties, which opens up novel opportunities not only in sorption and catalysis, but also in controlling more challenging physical characteristics such as band gap as well as magnetic and electrical/conductive properties. It is challenging to structurally characterize the inherent or intentionally created defects of various types, and there have so far been few efforts to comprehensively discuss these issues. Based on selected reports spanning the last decades, this Review closes that gap by providing both a concise overview of defects in MOFs, or more broadly coordination network compounds (CNCs), including their classification and characterization, together with the (potential) applications of defective CNCs/MOFs. Moreover, we will highlight important aspects of "defect-engineering" concepts applied for CNCs, also in comparison with relevant solid materials such as zeolites or COFs. Finally, we discuss the future potential of defect-engineered CNCs.

3D Imaging of Twin Domain Defects in Gold Nanoparticles

Topological defects are ubiquitous in physics and include crystallographic imperfections such as defects in condensed matter systems. Defects can determine many of the material's properties, thus providing novel opportunities for defect engineering. However, it is difficult to track buried defects and their interfaces in three dimensions with nanoscale resolution. Here, we report three-dimensional visualization of gold nanocrystal twin domains using Bragg coherent X-ray diffractive imaging in an aqueous environment. We capture the size and location of twin domains, which appear as voids in the Bragg electron density, in addition to a component of the strain field. Twin domains can interrupt the stacking order of the parent crystal, leading to a phase offset between the separated parent crystal pieces. We utilize this phase offset to estimate the roughness of the twin boundary. We measure the diffraction signal from the crystal twin and show its Bragg electron density fits into the parent crystal void. Defect imaging will likely facilitate improvement and rational design of nanostructured materials.

Screw dislocations in complex, low symmetry oxides: core structures, energetics, and impact on crystal growth

Determining the atomic structure and the influence of defects on properties of low symmetry oxides have long been an engineering pursuit. Here, we focus on five thermodynamically reversible monoclinic and orthorhombic polymorphs of dicalcium silicates (Ca2SiO3)-a key cement constituent-as a model system and use atomistic simulations to unravel the interplay between the screw dislocation core energies, nonplanar core structures, and Peierls stresses along different crystallographic planes. Among different polymorphs, we found that the α polymorphs (α-C2S) has the largest Peierls stress, corresponding to the most brittle polymorph, which make it attractive for grinding processes. Interestingly, our analyses indicate that this polymorphs has the lowest dislocation core energy, making it ideal for reactivity and crystal growth. Generally, we identified the following order in terms of grinding efficiency based on screw dislocation analysis, α-C2S > αH-C2S > αL-C2S > β-C2S > γ-C2S, and the following order in term of reactivity, α -C2S > αL-C2S > γ-C2S > αH-C2S > β-C2S. This information, combined with other deformation-based mechanisms, such as twinning and edge dislocation, can provide crucial insights and guiding hypotheses for experimentalists to tune the cement grinding mechanisms and reactivity processes for an overall optimum solution with regard to both energy consumption and performance. Our findings significantly broaden the spectrum of strategies for leveraging both crystallographic directions and crystal symmetry to concurrently modulate mechanics and crystal growth processes within an identical chemical composition.

Anatomy of screw dislocations in nanoporous SAPO-18 as revealed by atomic force microscopy

The complex crystal-growth mechanism of the industrially important nanoporous catalyst SAPO-18 is investigated by atomic force microscopy.

Mechanical properties of ceria nanorods and nanochains; the effect of dislocations, grain-boundaries and oriented attachment

We predict that the presence of extended defects can reduce the mechanical strength of a ceria nanorod by 70%. Conversely, the pristine material can deform near its theoretical strength limit. Specifically, atomistic models of ceria nanorods have been generated with full microstructure, including: growth direction, morphology, surface roughening (steps, edges, corners), point defects, dislocations and grain-boundaries. The models were then used to calculate the mechanical strength as a function of microstructure. Our simulations reveal that the compressive yield strengths of ceria nanorods, ca. 10 nm in diameter and without extended defects, are 46 and 36 GPa for rods oriented along [211] and [110] respectively, which represents almost 10% of the bulk elastic modulus and are associated with yield strains of about 0.09. Tensile yield strengths were calculated to be about 50% lower with associated yield strains of about 0.06. For both nanorods, plastic deformation was found to proceed via slip in the {001} plane with direction <110>--a primary slip system for crystals with the fluorite structure. Dislocation evolution for the nanorod oriented along [110] was nucleated via a cerium vacancy present at the surface. A nanorod oriented along [321] and comprising twin-grain boundaries with {111} interfacial planes was calculated to have a yield strength of about 10 GPa (compression and tension) with the grain boundary providing the vehicle for plastic deformation, which slipped in the plane of the grain boundary, with an associated <110> slip direction. We also predict, using a combination of atomistic simulation and DFT, that rutile-structured ceria is feasible when the crystal is placed under tension. The mechanical properties of nanochains, comprising individual ceria nanoparticles with oriented attachment and generated using simulated self-assembly, were found to be similar to those of the nanorod with grain-boundary. Images of the atom positions during tension and compression are shown, together with animations, revealing the mechanisms underpinning plastic deformation. For the nanochain, our simulations help further our understanding of how a crystallising ice front can be used to 'sculpt' ceria nanoparticles into nanorods via oriented attachment.

Incorporation of trivalent cations in synthetic garnets A3B5O12 (A = Y, Lu-La, B = Al, Fe, Ga)

Static-lattice atomistic calculations have been used to study the solution energy for the incorporation of 13 foreign cations at 3 different lattice positions of 12 synthetic garnets. Trends have been obtained as a function of the ionic radius of the dopant cation, and the predictions about site preference have been compared with both literature and experimental data. The preferred substitution site is mainly determined by the ionic size and has been correctly predicted in all cases. Moreover, the energy difference between the preferred substitution site and the next favored site is relatively small in several cases, and hence the foreign ions can be inserted at two different positions by using the correct stoichiometry. A remarkably different behavior has been encountered for Al garnets, due to the smaller size of the unit cell. In particular, some cations, such as Fe3+ and Ga3+, can be inserted at the dodecahedral position usually occupied by the rare-earth ion. Despite the limitations of the static-lattice approach, the results of the present simulations help in the understanding of the defect chemistry of garnets, which is strongly responsible for the physicochemical properties (such as luminescence and ferrimagnetism) that make garnets interesting for technological applications. Such results lead to the possibility of tuning the optical and luminescence properties of garnets by the formation of different types of solid solutions.

Implications for plastic flow in the deep mantle from modelling dislocations in MgSiO3 minerals

The dynamics of the Earth's interior is largely controlled by mantle convection, which transports radiogenic and primordial heat towards the surface. Slow stirring of the deep mantle is achieved in the solid state through high-temperature creep of rocks, which are dominated by the mineral MgSiO3 perovskite. Transformation of MgSiO3 to a 'post-perovskite' phase may explain the peculiarities of the lowermost mantle, such as the observed seismic anisotropy, but the mechanical properties of these mineralogical phases are largely unknown. Plastic flow of solids involves the motion of a large number of crystal defects, named dislocations. A quantitative description of flow in the Earth's mantle requires information about dislocations in high-pressure minerals and their behaviour under stress. This property is currently out of reach of direct atomistic simulations using either empirical interatomic potentials or ab initio calculations. Here we report an alternative to direct atomistic simulations based on the framework of the Peierls-Nabarro model. Dislocation core models are proposed for MgSiO3 perovskite (at 100 GPa) and post-perovskite (at 120 GPa). We show that in perovskite, plastic deformation is strongly influenced by the orthorhombic distortions of the unit cell. In silicate post-perovskite, large dislocations are relaxed through core dissociation, with implications for the mechanical properties and seismic anisotropy of the lowermost mantle.

Oxygen transport in unreduced, reduced and Rh(iii)-doped CeO2nanocrystals

Ceria, CeO2, based materials are a major (active) component of exhaust catalysts and promising candidates for solid oxide fuel cells. In this capacity, oxygen transport through the material is pivotal. Here, we explore whether oxygen transport is influenced (desirably increased) compared with transport within the bulk parent material by traversing to the nanoscale. In particular, atomistic models for ceria nanocrystals, including perfect: CeO2; reduced: CeO1.95 and doped: Rh0.1Ce0.9O1.95, have been generated. The nanocrystals were about 8 nm in diameter and each comprised about 16,000 atoms. Oxygen transport can also be influenced, sometimes profoundly, by microstructural features such as dislocations and grain-boundaries. However, these are difficult to generate within an atomistic model using, for example, symmetry operations. Accordingly, we crystallised the nanocrystals from an amorphous precursor, which facilitated the evolution of a variety of microstructures including: twin-boundaries and more general grain-boundaries and grain-junctions, dislocations and epitaxy, isolated and associated point defects. The shapes of the nanocrystals are in accord with HRTEM data and comprise octahedral morphologies with {111} surfaces, truncated by (dipolar) {100} surfaces together with a complex array of steps, edges and corners. Oxygen transport data was then calculated using these models and compared with data calculated previously for CeO1.97/ YSZ thin films and the (bulk) parent material, CeO197. Oxygen transport was calculated to increase in the order: CeO2 nanocrystal < (reduced) CeO1.95 nanocrystal approximately Rh0.1Ce0.9O1.95 nanocrystal < CeO1.97/YSZ thin film < (reduced) CeO1.97 (bulk) parent material; the mechanism was determined to be primarily vacancy driven. Our findings indicate that reducing one- (thin film) or especially three- (nanocrystal) dimensions to the nanoscale may prove deleterious to oxygen transport. Conversely, we observed dynamic evolution and annihilation of surface vacancies via surface oxygens migrating to the bulk of the nanocrystal; the vacancies left are then filled by other oxygens moving to the surface. Coupled with previous simulation studies, in which we calculated that oxygen extraction from the surface of a ceria nanocrystal was energetically easier compared with the bulk surface, our calculations predict that ceria nanocrystals would facilitate effective oxidative catalysis. This study describes framework simulation procedures, which can be used in partnership with experiment, to explore transport in nanocrystalline ionic systems, which include complex microstructures. Such data can provide predictions for experiment or help reduce the number of experiments required.

Atomic scale modelling of the cores of dislocations in complex materials part 1: methodology

Dislocations influence many properties of crystalline solids, including plastic deformation, growth and dissolution, diffusion and the formation of polytypes. Some of these processes can be described using continuum methods but this approach fails when a description of the structure of the core is required. To progress in these types of problems, an atomic scale model is essential. So far, atomic scale modelling of the cores of dislocations has been limited to systems with rather simple crystal structures. In this article, we describe modifications to current methodology, which have been used for strongly ionic materials with simple structures. These modifications permit the study of dislocation cores in more structurally complex materials.

Atomic scale modelling of the cores of dislocations in complex materials part 2: applications

In an accompanying article, we have described a methodology for the simulation of dislocations in structurally complex materials. We illustrate the applicability of this method through studies of screw dislocations in a structurally simple ionic ceramic (MgO), a molecular ionic mineral (forsterite, Mg2SiO4), a semi-ionic zeolite (siliceous zeolite A) and a covalent molecular crystalline material (the pharmaceutical, orthorhombic paracetamol-II). We focus on the extent of relaxation and the structure of the dislocation cores and comment on similarities and points of disparity between these materials. It is found that the magnitude of the relaxation varies from material to material and does not simply correlate with the magnitude of the principal elastic constants in an easily predictable fashion, or with the size of the cohesive lattice energy or length of the Burgers vector, which emphasises the need to model the non-linear forces and atomic structure of the core.