Rapidly evolving homing CRISPR barcodes

A massively parallel in vivo assay of TdT mutants yields variants with altered nucleotide insertion biases

Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) is a unique DNA polymerase capable of template-independent extension of DNA with random nucleotides. TdT's de novo DNA synthesis ability has found utility in DNA recording, DNA data storage, oligonucleotide synthesis, and nucleic acid labeling, but TdT's intrinsic nucleotide biases limit its versatility in such applications. Here, we describe a multiplexed assay for profiling and engineering the bias and overall activity of TdT variants in high throughput. In our assay, a library of TdTs is encoded next to a CRISPR-Cas9 target site in HEK293T cells. Upon transfection of Cas9 and sgRNA, the target site is cut, allowing TdT to intercept the double strand break and add nucleotides. Each resulting insertion is sequenced alongside the identity of the TdT variant that generated it. Using this assay, 25,623 unique TdT variants, constructed by site-saturation mutagenesis at strategic positions, were profiled. This resulted in the isolation of several altered-bias TdTs that expanded the capabilities of our TdT-based DNA recording system, Cell History Recording by Ordered Insertion (CHYRON), by increasing the information density of recording through an unbiased TdT and achieving dual-channel recording of two distinct inducers (hypoxia and Wnt) through two differently biased TdTs. Select TdT variants were also tested in vitro , revealing concordance between each variant's in vitro bias and the in vivo bias determined from the multiplexed high throughput assay. Overall, our work, and the multiplex assay it features, should support the continued development of TdT-based DNA recorders, in vitro applications of TdT, and further study of the biology of TdT.

Clonal tracking in cancer and metastasis

The eradication of many cancers has proven challenging due to the presence of functionally and genetically heterogeneous clones maintained by rare cancer stem cells (CSCs), which contribute to disease progression, treatment refractoriness, and late relapse. The characterization of functional CSC activity has necessitated the development of modern clonal tracking strategies. This review describes viral-based and CRISPR-Cas9-based cellular barcoding, lineage tracing, and imaging-based approaches. DNA-based cellular barcoding technology is emerging as a powerful and robust strategy that has been widely applied to in vitro and in vivo model systems, including patient-derived xenograft models. This review also highlights the potential of these methods for use in the clinical and drug discovery contexts and discusses the important insights gained from such approaches.

Genetic Tools for Cell Lineage Tracing and Profiling Developmental Trajectories in the Skin

The epidermis is the body's first line of protection against dehydration and pathogens, continually regenerating the outermost protective skin layers throughout life. During both embryonic development and wound healing, epidermal stem and progenitor cells must respond to external stimuli and insults to build, maintain, and repair the cutaneous barrier. Recent advances in CRISPR-based methods for cell lineage tracing have remarkably expanded the potential for experiments that track stem and progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation over the course of tissue and even organismal development. Additional tools for DNA-based recording of cellular signaling cues promise to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms driving normal skin morphogenesis and response to stressors as well as the dysregulation of cell proliferation and differentiation in skin diseases and cancer. In this review, we highlight cutting-edge methods for cell lineage tracing, including in organoids and model organisms, and explore how cutaneous biology researchers might leverage these techniques to elucidate the developmental programs that support the regenerative capacity and plasticity of the skin.

From Hematopoietic Stem Cells to Platelets: Unifying Differentiation Pathways Identified by Lineage Tracing Mouse Models

Platelets are the terminal progeny of megakaryocytes, primarily produced in the bone marrow, and play critical roles in blood homeostasis, clotting, and wound healing. Traditionally, megakaryocytes and platelets are thought to arise from multipotent hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) via multiple discrete progenitor populations with successive, lineage-restricting differentiation steps. However, this view has recently been challenged by studies suggesting that (1) some HSC clones are biased and/or restricted to the platelet lineage, (2) not all platelet generation follows the "canonical" megakaryocytic differentiation path of hematopoiesis, and (3) platelet output is the default program of steady-state hematopoiesis. Here, we specifically investigate the evidence that in vivo lineage tracing studies provide for the route(s) of platelet generation and investigate the involvement of various intermediate progenitor cell populations. We further identify the challenges that need to be overcome that are required to determine the presence, role, and kinetics of these possible alternate pathways.

Charting Single Cell Lineage Dynamics and Mutation Networks via Homing CRISPR

Single cell lineage tracing, essential for unraveling cellular dynamics in disease evolution is critical for developing targeted therapies. CRISPR-Cas9, known for inducing permanent and cumulative mutations, is a cornerstone in lineage tracing. The novel homing guide RNA (hgRNA) technology enhances this by enabling dynamic retargeting and facilitating ongoing genetic modifications. Charting these mutations, especially through successive hgRNA edits, poses a significant challenge. Our solution, LINEMAP, is a computational framework designed to trace and map these mutations with precision. LINEMAP meticulously discerns mutation alleles at single-cell resolution and maps their complex interrelationships through a mutation evolution network. By utilizing a Markov Process model, we can predict mutation transition probabilities, revealing potential mutational routes and pathways. Our reconstruction algorithm, anchored in the Markov model's attributes, reconstructs cellular lineage pathways, shedding light on the cell's evolutionary journey to the minutiae of single-cell division. Our findings reveal an intricate network of mutation evolution paired with a predictive Markov model, advancing our capability to reconstruct single-cell lineage via hgRNA. This has substantial implications for advancing our understanding of biological mechanisms and propelling medical research forward.

DNA Barcoding Technology for Lineage Recording and Tracing to Resolve Cell Fate Determination

In various biological contexts, cells receive signals and stimuli that prompt them to change their current state, leading to transitions into a future state. This change underlies the processes of development, tissue maintenance, immune response, and the pathogenesis of various diseases. Following the path of cells from their initial identity to their current state reveals how cells adapt to their surroundings and undergo transformations to attain adjusted cellular states. DNA-based molecular barcoding technology enables the documentation of a phylogenetic tree and the deterministic events of cell lineages, providing the mechanisms and timing of cell lineage commitment that can either promote homeostasis or lead to cellular dysregulation. This review comprehensively presents recently emerging molecular recording technologies that utilize CRISPR/Cas systems, base editing, recombination, and innate variable sequences in the genome. Detailing their underlying principles, applications, and constraints paves the way for the lineage tracing of every cell within complex biological systems, encompassing the hidden steps and intermediate states of organism development and disease progression.

Temporal recording of mammalian development and precancer

Key to understanding many biological phenomena is knowing the temporal ordering of cellular events, which often require continuous direct observations [1, 2]. An alternative solution involves the utilization of irreversible genetic changes, such as naturally occurring mutations, to create indelible markers that enables retrospective temporal ordering [3-8]. Using NSC-seq, a newly designed and validated multi-purpose single-cell CRISPR platform, we developed a molecular clock approach to record the timing of cellular events and clonality in vivo , while incorporating assigned cell state and lineage information. Using this approach, we uncovered precise timing of tissue-specific cell expansion during murine embryonic development and identified new intestinal epithelial progenitor states by their unique genetic histories. NSC-seq analysis of murine adenomas and single-cell multi-omic profiling of human precancers as part of the Human Tumor Atlas Network (HTAN), including 116 scRNA-seq datasets and clonal analysis of 418 human polyps, demonstrated the occurrence of polyancestral initiation in 15-30% of colonic precancers, revealing their origins from multiple normal founders. Thus, our multimodal framework augments existing single-cell analyses and lays the foundation for in vivo multimodal recording, enabling the tracking of lineage and temporal events during development and tumorigenesis.

Tracking Tumor Cell Dissemination from Lung Metastases Using Photoconversion

Metastasis - the systemic spread of cancer - is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Although metastasis is commonly thought of as a unidirectional process wherein cells from the primary tumor disseminate and seed metastases, tumor cells in existing metastases can also redisseminate and give rise to new lesions in tertiary sites in a process known as "metastasis-from-metastases" or "metastasis-to-metastasis seeding." Metastasis-to-metastasis seeding may increase the metastatic burden and decrease the patient's quality of life and survival. Therefore, understanding the processes behind this phenomenon is crucial to refining treatment strategies for patients with metastatic cancer. Little is known about metastasis-to-metastasis seeding, due in part to logistical and technological limitations. Studies on metastasis-to-metastasis seeding rely primarily on sequencing methods, which may not be practical for researchers studying the exact timing of metastasis-to-metastasis seeding events or what promotes or prevents them. This highlights the lack of methodologies that facilitate the study of metastasis-to-metastasis seeding. To address this, we have developed - and describe herein - a murine surgical protocol for the selective photoconversion of lung metastases, allowing specific marking and fate tracking of tumor cells redisseminating from the lung to tertiary sites. To our knowledge, this is the only method for studying tumor cell redissemination and metastasis-to-metastasis seeding from the lungs that does not require genomic analysis.

Cellular barcoding: From developmental tracing to anti-tumor drug discovery

Clonal evolution has gained immense attention in explaining cancer cell status, history, and fate during cancer progression. Current single-cell or spatial transcriptome technologies have broadened our understanding of various mechanisms underlying cancer initiation, relapse, and drug resistance. However, technical challenges still hinder a better understanding of the dynamics of distinctive phenotypic states and abnormal trajectories from normal physiological transition to malignant stages. Cellular barcoding enabled lineage tracing on parallelly massive cells at single-cell resolution through different mechanisms lately, enabling new insights into exploring developmental trajectories, cancer progression, and targeted therapies. This review summarizes the latest noteworthy and robust strategies for different types of cellular barcodes. To introduce the major characteristics, advantages and limitations of these different strategies, this review will further guide in choosing or improving cellular barcoding technologies and their applications in cancer research.

CRISPR for neuroscientists

Genome engineering technologies provide an entry point into understanding and controlling the function of genetic elements in health and disease. The discovery and development of the microbial defense system CRISPR-Cas yielded a treasure trove of genome engineering technologies and revolutionized the biomedical sciences. Comprising diverse RNA-guided enzymes and effector proteins that evolved or were engineered to manipulate nucleic acids and cellular processes, the CRISPR toolbox provides precise control over biology. Virtually all biological systems are amenable to genome engineering-from cancer cells to the brains of model organisms to human patients-galvanizing research and innovation and giving rise to fundamental insights into health and powerful strategies for detecting and correcting disease. In the field of neuroscience, these tools are being leveraged across a wide range of applications, including engineering traditional and non-traditional transgenic animal models, modeling disease, testing genomic therapies, unbiased screening, programming cell states, and recording cellular lineages and other biological processes. In this primer, we describe the development and applications of CRISPR technologies while highlighting outstanding limitations and opportunities.

Dissecting metastasis using preclinical models and methods

Metastasis has long been understood to lead to the overwhelming majority of cancer-related deaths. However, our understanding of the metastatic process, and thus our ability to prevent or eliminate metastases, remains frustratingly limited. This is largely due to the complexity of metastasis, which is a multistep process that likely differs across cancer types and is greatly influenced by many aspects of the in vivo microenvironment. In this Review, we discuss the key variables to consider when designing assays to study metastasis: which source of metastatic cancer cells to use and where to introduce them into mice to address different questions of metastasis biology. We also examine methods that are being used to interrogate specific steps of the metastatic cascade in mouse models, as well as emerging techniques that may shed new light on previously inscrutable aspects of metastasis. Finally, we explore approaches for developing and using anti-metastatic therapies, and how mouse models can be used to test them.

Cellular barcoding tracks heterogeneous clones through selective pressures and phenotypic transitions

Genomic DNA barcoding has emerged as a sensitive and flexible tool to measure the fates of clonal subpopulations within a heterogeneous cancer cell population. Coupling cellular barcoding with single-cell transcriptomics permits the longitudinal analysis of molecular mechanisms with detailed clone-level resolution. Numerous recent studies have employed these tools to track clonal cell states in cancer progression and treatment response. With these new technologies comes the opportunity to examine longstanding questions about the origins and contributions of tumor cell heterogeneity and the roles of selection and phenotypic plasticity in disease progression and treatment.

Bone serves as a transfer station for secondary dissemination of breast cancer

Metastasis is responsible for the majority of deaths among breast cancer patients. Although parallel polyclonal seeding has been shown to contribute to organ-specific metastasis, in the past decade, horizontal cross-metastatic seeding (metastasis-to-metastasis spreading) has also been demonstrated as a pattern of distant metastasis to multiple sites. Bone, as the most frequent first destination of breast cancer metastasis, has been demonstrated to facilitate the secondary dissemination of breast cancer cells. In this review, we summarize the clinical and experimental evidence that bone is a transfer station for the secondary dissemination of breast cancer. We also discuss the regulatory mechanisms of the bone microenvironment in secondary seeding of breast cancer, focusing on stemness regulation, quiescence-proliferation equilibrium regulation, epigenetic reprogramming and immune escape of cancer cells. Furthermore, we highlight future research perspectives and strategies for preventing secondary dissemination from bone.

Optimization of CRISPR-Cas system for clinical cancer therapy

Cancer is a genetic disease caused by alterations in genome and epigenome and is one of the leading causes for death worldwide. The exploration of disease development and therapeutic strategies at the genetic level have become the key to the treatment of cancer and other genetic diseases. The functional analysis of genes and mutations has been slow and laborious. Therefore, there is an urgent need for alternative approaches to improve the current status of cancer research. Gene editing technologies provide technical support for efficient gene disruption and modification in vivo and in vitro, in particular the use of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas systems. Currently, the applications of CRISPR-Cas systems in cancer rely on different Cas effector proteins and the design of guide RNAs. Furthermore, effective vector delivery must be met for the CRISPR-Cas systems to enter human clinical trials. In this review article, we describe the mechanism of the CRISPR-Cas systems and highlight the applications of class II Cas effector proteins. We also propose a synthetic biology approach to modify the CRISPR-Cas systems, and summarize various delivery approaches facilitating the clinical application of the CRISPR-Cas systems. By modifying the CRISPR-Cas system and optimizing its in vivo delivery, promising and effective treatments for cancers using the CRISPR-Cas system are emerging.

ClonoCluster: A method for using clonal origin to inform transcriptome clustering

Clustering cells based on their high-dimensional profiles is an important data reduction process by which researchers infer distinct cellular states. The advent of cellular barcoding, however, provides an alternative means by which to group cells: by their clonal origin. We developed ClonoCluster, a computational method that combines both clone and transcriptome information to create hybrid clusters that weight both kinds of data with a tunable parameter. We generated hybrid clusters across six independent datasets and found that ClonoCluster generated qualitatively different clusters in all cases. The markers of these hybrid clusters were different but had equivalent fidelity to transcriptome-only clusters. The genes most strongly associated with the rearrangements in hybrid clusters were ribosomal function and extracellular matrix genes. We also developed the complementary tool Warp Factor that incorporates clone information in popular 2D visualization techniques like UMAP. Integrating ClonoCluster and Warp Factor revealed biologically relevant markers of cell identity.

Modern Approaches to Mouse Genome Editing Using the CRISPR-Cas Toolbox and Their Applications in Functional Genomics and Translational Research

Mice have been used in biological research for over a century, and their immense contribution to scientific breakthroughs can be seen across all research disciplines, with some of the main beneficiaries being the fields of medicine and life sciences. Genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs), along with other model organisms, are fundamentally important research tools frequently utilised to enhance our understanding of pathophysiology and biological mechanisms behind disease. In the 1980s, it became possible to precisely edit the mouse genome to create gene knockout and knock-in mice, although with low efficacy. Recent advances utilising CRISPR-Cas technologies have considerably improved our ability to do this with ease and precision, while also allowing the generation of desired genetic variants from single nucleotide substitutions to large insertions/deletions. It is now quick and relatively easy to genetically edit somatic cells which were previously more recalcitrant to traditional approaches. Further refinements have created a 'CRISPR toolkit' that has expanded the use of CRISPR-Cas beyond gene knock-ins and knockouts. In this chapter, we review some of the latest applications of CRISPR-Cas technologies in GEMMs, including nuclease-dead Cas9 systems for activation or repression of gene expression, base editing and prime editing. We also discuss improvements in Cas9 specificity, targeting efficacy and delivery methods in mice. Throughout, we provide examples wherein CRISPR-Cas technologies have been applied to target clinically relevant genes in preclinical GEMMs, both to generate humanised models and for experimental gene therapy research.

Quantitative fate mapping: A general framework for analyzing progenitor state dynamics via retrospective lineage barcoding

Natural and induced somatic mutations that accumulate in the genome during development record the phylogenetic relationships of cells; whether these lineage barcodes capture the complex dynamics of progenitor states remains unclear. We introduce quantitative fate mapping, an approach to reconstruct the hierarchy, commitment times, population sizes, and commitment biases of intermediate progenitor states during development based on a time-scaled phylogeny of their descendants. To reconstruct time-scaled phylogenies from lineage barcodes, we introduce Phylotime, a scalable maximum likelihood clustering approach based on a general barcoding mutagenesis model. We validate these approaches using realistic in silico and in vitro barcoding experiments. We further establish criteria for the number of cells that must be analyzed for robust quantitative fate mapping and a progenitor state coverage statistic to assess the robustness. This work demonstrates how lineage barcodes, natural or synthetic, enable analyzing progenitor fate and dynamics long after embryonic development in any organism.

TiDeTree: a Bayesian phylogenetic framework to estimate single-cell trees and population dynamic parameters from genetic lineage tracing data

The development of organisms and tissues is dictated by an elaborate balance between cell division, apoptosis and differentiation: the cell population dynamics. To quantify these dynamics, we propose a phylodynamic inference approach based on single-cell lineage recorder data. We developed a Bayesian phylogenetic framework-time-scaled developmental trees (TiDeTree)-that uses lineage recorder data to estimate time-scaled single-cell trees. By implementing TiDeTree within BEAST 2, we enable joint inference of the time-scaled trees and the cell population dynamics. We validated TiDeTree using simulations and showed that performance further improves when including multiple independent sources of information into the inference, such as frequencies of editing outcomes or experimental replicates. We benchmarked TiDeTree against state-of-the-art methods and show comparable performance in terms of tree topology, plus direct assessment of uncertainty and co-estimation of additional parameters. To demonstrate TiDeTree's use in practice, we analysed a public dataset containing lineage data from approximately 100 stem cell colonies. We estimated a time-scaled phylogeny for each colony; as well as the cell division and apoptosis rates underlying the growth dynamics of all colonies. We envision that TiDeTree will find broad application in the analysis of single-cell lineage tracing data, which will improve our understanding of cellular processes during development.

Mastering the use of cellular barcoding to explore cancer heterogeneity

Tumours are often composed of a multitude of malignant clones that are genomically unique, and only a few of them may have the ability to escape cancer therapy and grow as symptomatic lesions. As a result, tumours with a large degree of genomic diversity have a higher chance of leading to patient death. However, clonal fate can be driven by non-genomic features. In this context, new technologies are emerging not only to track the spatiotemporal fate of individual cells and their progeny but also to study their molecular features using various omics analysis. In particular, the recent development of cellular barcoding facilitates the labelling of tens to millions of cancer clones and enables the identification of the complex mechanisms associated with clonal fate in different microenvironments and in response to therapy. In this Review, we highlight the recent discoveries made using lentiviral-based cellular barcoding techniques, namely genetic and optical barcoding. We also emphasize the strengths and limitations of each of these technologies and discuss some of the key concepts that must be taken into consideration when one is designing barcoding experiments. Finally, we suggest new directions to further improve the use of these technologies in cancer research.

RNA-Responsive gRNAs for Controlling CRISPR Activity: Current Advances, Future Directions, and Potential Applications

CRISPR-Cas9 has emerged as a major genome manipulation tool. As Cas9 can cause off-target effects, several methods for controlling the expression of CRISPR systems were developed. Recent studies have shown that CRISPR activity could be controlled by sensing expression levels of endogenous transcripts. This is particularly interesting, as endogenous RNAs could harbor important information about the cell type, disease state, and environmental challenges cells are facing. Single-guide RNA (sgRNA) engineering played a major role in the development of RNA-responsive CRISPR systems. Following further optimizations, RNA-responsive sgRNAs could enable the development of novel therapeutic and research applications. This review introduces engineering strategies that could be employed to modify Streptococcus pyogenes sgRNAs with a focus on recent advances made toward the development of RNA-responsive sgRNAs. Future directions and potential applications of these technologies are also discussed.

Massively parallel genomic perturbations with multi-target CRISPR interrogates Cas9 activity and DNA repair at endogenous sites

Here we present an approach that combines a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) system that simultaneously targets hundreds of epigenetically diverse endogenous genomic sites with high-throughput sequencing to measure Cas9 dynamics and cellular responses at scale. This massive multiplexing of CRISPR is enabled by means of multi-target guide RNAs (mgRNAs), degenerate guide RNAs that direct Cas9 to a pre-determined number of well-mapped sites. mgRNAs uncovered generalizable insights into Cas9 binding and cleavage, revealing rapid post-cleavage Cas9 departure and repair factor loading at protospacer adjacent motif-proximal genomic DNA. Moreover, by bypassing confounding effects from guide RNA sequence, mgRNAs unveiled that Cas9 binding is enhanced at chromatin-accessible regions, and cleavage by bound Cas9 is more efficient near transcribed regions. Combined with light-mediated activation and deactivation of Cas9 activity, mgRNAs further enabled high-throughput study of the cellular response to double-strand breaks with high temporal resolution, revealing the presence, extent (under 2 kb) and kinetics (~1 h) of reversible DNA damage-induced chromatin decompaction. Altogether, this work establishes mgRNAs as a generalizable platform for multiplexing CRISPR and advances our understanding of intracellular Cas9 activity and the DNA damage response at endogenous loci.

Recent Advances in Monitoring Stem Cell Status and Differentiation Using Nano-Biosensing Technologies

In regenerative medicine, cell therapies using various stem cells have received attention as an alternative to overcome the limitations of existing therapeutic methods. Clinical applications of stem cells require the identification of characteristics at the single-cell level and continuous monitoring during expansion and differentiation. In this review, we recapitulate the application of various stem cells used in regenerative medicine and the latest technological advances in monitoring the differentiation process of stem cells. Single-cell RNA sequencing capable of profiling the expression of many genes at the single-cell level provides a new opportunity to analyze stem cell heterogeneity and to specify molecular markers related to the branching of differentiation lineages. However, this method is destructive and distorted. In addition, the differentiation process of a particular cell cannot be continuously tracked. Therefore, several spectroscopic methods have been developed to overcome these limitations. In particular, the application of Raman spectroscopy to measure the intrinsic vibration spectrum of molecules has been proposed as a powerful method that enables continuous monitoring of biochemical changes in the process of the differentiation of stem cells. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current analytical methods employed for stem cell engineering and future perspectives of nano-biosensing technologies as a platform for the in situ monitoring of stem cell status and differentiation.

Machine-learning-optimized Cas12a barcoding enables the recovery of single-cell lineages and transcriptional profiles

The development of CRISPR-based barcoding methods creates an exciting opportunity to understand cellular phylogenies. We present a compact, tunable, high-capacity Cas12a barcoding system called dual acting inverted site array (DAISY). We combined high-throughput screening and machine learning to predict and optimize the 60-bp DAISY barcode sequences. After optimization, top-performing barcodes had ∼10-fold increased capacity relative to the best random-screened designs and performed reliably across diverse cell types. DAISY barcode arrays generated ∼12 bits of entropy and ∼66,000 unique barcodes. Thus, DAISY barcodes-at a fraction of the size of Cas9 barcodes-achieved high-capacity barcoding. We coupled DAISY barcoding with single-cell RNA-seq to recover lineages and gene expression profiles from ∼47,000 human melanoma cells. A single DAISY barcode recovered up to ∼700 lineages from one parental cell. This analysis revealed heritable single-cell gene expression and potential epigenetic modulation of memory gene transcription. Overall, Cas12a DAISY barcoding is an efficient tool for investigating cell-state dynamics.

A time-resolved, multi-symbol molecular recorder via sequential genome editing

DNA is naturally well suited to serve as a digital medium for in vivo molecular recording. However, contemporary DNA-based memory devices are constrained in terms of the number of distinct 'symbols' that can be concurrently recorded and/or by a failure to capture the order in which events occur1. Here we describe DNA Typewriter, a general system for in vivo molecular recording that overcomes these and other limitations. For DNA Typewriter, the blank recording medium ('DNA Tape') consists of a tandem array of partial CRISPR-Cas9 target sites, with all but the first site truncated at their 5' ends and therefore inactive. Short insertional edits serve as symbols that record the identity of the prime editing guide RNA2 mediating the edit while also shifting the position of the 'type guide' by one unit along the DNA Tape, that is, sequential genome editing. In this proof of concept of DNA Typewriter, we demonstrate recording and decoding of thousands of symbols, complex event histories and short text messages; evaluate the performance of dozens of orthogonal tapes; and construct 'long tape' potentially capable of recording as many as 20 serial events. Finally, we leverage DNA Typewriter in conjunction with single-cell RNA-seq to reconstruct a monophyletic lineage of 3,257 cells and find that the Poisson-like accumulation of sequential edits to multicopy DNA tape can be maintained across at least 20 generations and 25 days of in vitro clonal expansion.

Cancer-associated chromatin variants uncover the oncogenic role of transposable elements

The vast array of cell states found across human tissue arises from chromatin variants, which correspond to segments of the genome, known as DNA elements, adopting a different chromatin state over cell state transitions. Oncogenesis stems from alterations to the chromatin states over DNA elements that result in cancer-associated chromatin variants. Here, we review how cancer-associated chromatin variants call attention to repetitive DNA elements, and guide the functional characterization of transposable elements to decode their role in oncogenesis. We further discuss prevailing opportunities in the study of repetitive DNA elements to move towards the 'complete cancer genome' goal for precision medicine in oncology.

CRISPR in cancer biology and therapy

Over the past decade, CRISPR has become as much a verb as it is an acronym, transforming biomedical research and providing entirely new approaches for dissecting all facets of cell biology. In cancer research, CRISPR and related tools have offered a window into previously intractable problems in our understanding of cancer genetics, the noncoding genome and tumour heterogeneity, and provided new insights into therapeutic vulnerabilities. Here, we review the progress made in the development of CRISPR systems as a tool to study cancer, and the emerging adaptation of these technologies to improve diagnosis and treatment.

A New Generation of Lineage Tracing Dynamically Records Cell Fate Choices

Reconstructing the development of lineage relationships and cell fate mapping has been a fundamental problem in biology. Using advanced molecular biology and single-cell RNA sequencing, we have profiled transcriptomes at the single-cell level and mapped cell fates during development. Recently, CRISPR/Cas9 barcode editing for large-scale lineage tracing has been used to reconstruct the pseudotime trajectory of cells and improve lineage tracing accuracy. This review presents the progress of the latest CbLT (CRISPR-based Lineage Tracing) and discusses the current limitations and potential technical pitfalls in their application and other emerging concepts.

Interactive, integrated analysis of single-cell transcriptomic and phylogenetic data with PhyloVision

Recent advances in CRISPR-Cas9 engineering and single-cell assays have enabled the simultaneous measurement of single-cell transcriptomic and phylogenetic profiles. However, there are few computational tools enabling users to integrate and derive insight from a joint analysis of these two modalities. Here, we describe "PhyloVision": an open-source software for interactively exploring data from both modalities and for identifying and interpreting heritable gene modules whose concerted expression are associated with phylogenetic relationships. PhyloVision provides a feature-rich, interactive, and shareable web-based report for investigating these modules while also supporting several other data and meta-data exploration capabilities. We demonstrate the utility of PhyloVision using a published dataset of metastatic lung adenocarcinoma cells, whose phylogeny was resolved using a CRISPR-Cas9-based lineage-tracing system. Together, we anticipate that PhyloVision and the methods it implements will be a useful resource for scalable and intuitive data exploration for any assay that simultaneously measures cell state and lineage.

Clonal relations in the mouse brain revealed by single-cell and spatial transcriptomics

The mammalian brain contains many specialized cells that develop from a thin sheet of neuroepithelial progenitor cells. Single-cell transcriptomics revealed hundreds of molecularly diverse cell types in the nervous system, but the lineage relationships between mature cell types and progenitor cells are not well understood. Here we show in vivo barcoding of early progenitors to simultaneously profile cell phenotypes and clonal relations in the mouse brain using single-cell and spatial transcriptomics. By reconstructing thousands of clones, we discovered fate-restricted progenitor cells in the mouse hippocampal neuroepithelium and show that microglia are derived from few primitive myeloid precursors that massively expand to generate widely dispersed progeny. We combined spatial transcriptomics with clonal barcoding and disentangled migration patterns of clonally related cells in densely labeled tissue sections. Our approach enables high-throughput dense reconstruction of cell phenotypes and clonal relations at the single-cell and tissue level in individual animals and provides an integrated approach for understanding tissue architecture.

Ratz et al. present an easy-to-use method to barcode progenitor cells, enabling profiling of cell phenotypes and clonal relations using single-cell and spatial transcriptomics, providing an integrated approach for understanding brain architecture.

CRISPR/ Cas9 Off-targets: Computational Analysis of Causes, Prediction, Detection, and Overcoming Strategies

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CRISPR/Cas9 technology is a highly flexible RNA-guided endonuclease (RGEN) based gene-editing tool that has transformed the field of genomics, gene therapy, and genome/ epigenome imaging. Its wide range of applications provides immense scope for understanding as well as manipulating genetic/epigenetic elements. However, the RGEN is prone to off-target mutagenesis that leads to deleterious effects. This review details the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the off-target activity, various available detection tools and prediction methodology ranging from sequencing to machine learning approaches, and the strategies to overcome/minimise off-targets. A coherent and concise method increasing target precision would prove indispensable to concrete manipulation and interpretation of genome editing results that can revolutionise therapeutics, including clarity in genome regulatory mechanisms during development.

Evolving cancer-niche interactions and therapeutic targets during bone metastasis

Many cancer types metastasize to bone. This propensity may be a product of genetic traits of the primary tumour in some cancers. Upon arrival, cancer cells establish interactions with various bone-resident cells during the process of colonization. These interactions, to a large degree, dictate cancer cell fates at multiple steps of the metastatic cascade, from single cells to overt metastases. The bone microenvironment may even influence cancer cells to subsequently spread to multiple other organs. Therefore, it is imperative to spatiotemporally delineate the evolving cancer-bone crosstalk during bone colonization. In this Review, we provide a summary of the bone microenvironment and its impact on bone metastasis. On the basis of the microscopic anatomy, we tentatively define a roadmap of the journey of cancer cells through bone relative to various microenvironment components, including the potential of bone to function as a launch pad for secondary metastasis. Finally, we examine common and distinct features of bone metastasis from various cancer types. Our goal is to stimulate future studies leading to the development of a broader scope of potent therapies.

Emerging strategies for the genetic dissection of gene functions, cell types, and neural circuits in the mammalian brain

The mammalian brain is composed of a large number of highly diverse cell types with different molecular, anatomical, and functional features. Distinct cellular identities are generated during development under the regulation of intricate genetic programs and manifested through unique combinations of gene expression. Recent advancements in our understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the assembly, function, and pathology of the brain circuitry depend on the invention and application of genetic strategies that engage intrinsic gene regulatory mechanisms. Here we review the strategies for gene regulation on DNA, RNA, and protein levels and their applications in cell type targeting and neural circuit dissection. We highlight newly emerged strategies and emphasize the importance of combinatorial approaches. We also discuss the potential caveats and pitfalls in current methods and suggest future prospects to improve their comprehensiveness and versatility.

Evolution of metastasis: new tools and insights

Metastasis is an evolutionary process occurring across multiple organs and timescales. Due to its continuous and dynamic nature, this multifaceted process has been challenging to investigate and remains incompletely understood, in part due to the lack of tools capable of probing genomic evolution at high enough resolution. However, technological advances in genetic sequencing and editing have provided new and powerful methods to refine our understanding of the complex series of events that lead to metastatic dissemination. In this review, we summarize the latest genetic and lineage-tracing approaches developed to unravel the genetic evolution of metastasis. The findings that have emerged have enhanced our comprehension of the mechanistic trajectories and timescales of metastasis and could provide new strategies for therapy.

Mapping single-cell-resolution cell phylogeny reveals cell population dynamics during organ development

Mapping the cell phylogeny of a complex multicellular organism relies on somatic mutations accumulated from zygote to adult. Available cell barcoding methods can record about three mutations per barcode, enabling only low-resolution mapping of the cell phylogeny of complex organisms. Here we developed SMALT, a substitution mutation-aided lineage-tracing system that outperforms the available cell barcoding methods in mapping cell phylogeny. We applied SMALT to Drosophila melanogaster and obtained on average more than 20 mutations on a three-kilobase-pair barcoding sequence in early-adult cells. Using the barcoding mutations, we obtained high-quality cell phylogenetic trees, each comprising several thousand internal nodes with 84-93% median bootstrap support. The obtained cell phylogenies enabled a population genetic analysis that estimates the longitudinal dynamics of the number of actively dividing parental cells (Np) in each organ through development. The Np dynamics revealed the trajectory of cell births and provided insight into the balance of symmetric and asymmetric cell division.

Advanced Technologies for Local Neural Circuits in the Cerebral Cortex

The neural network in the brain can be viewed as an integrated system assembled from a large number of local neural circuits specialized for particular brain functions. Activities of neurons in local neural circuits are thought to be organized both spatially and temporally under the rules optimized for their roles in information processing. It is well perceived that different areas of the mammalian neocortex have specific cognitive functions and distinct computational properties. However, the organizational principles of the local neural circuits in different cortical regions have not yet been clarified. Therefore, new research principles and related neuro-technologies that enable efficient and precise recording of large-scale neuronal activities and synaptic connections are necessary. Innovative technologies for structural analysis, including tissue clearing and expansion microscopy, have enabled super resolution imaging of the neural circuits containing thousands of neurons at a single synapse resolution. The imaging resolution and volume achieved by new technologies are beyond the limits of conventional light or electron microscopic methods. Progress in genome editing and related technologies has made it possible to label and manipulate specific cell types and discriminate activities of multiple cell types. These technologies will provide a breakthrough for multiscale analysis of the structure and function of local neural circuits. This review summarizes the basic concepts and practical applications of the emerging technologies and new insight into local neural circuits obtained by these technologies.

Comparing Phylogenetic Approaches to Reconstructing Cell Lineage From Microsatellites With Missing Data

Due to the imperfect fidelity of DNA replication, somatic cells acquire DNA mutations at each division which record their lineage history. Microsatellites, tandem repeats of DNA nucleotide motifs, mutate more frequently than other genomic regions and by observing microsatellite lengths in single cells and implementing suitable inference procedures, the cell lineage tree of an organism can be reconstructed. Due to recent advances in single cell Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) and the phylogenetic methods used to infer lineage trees, this work investigates which computational approaches best exploit the lineage information found in single cell NGS data. We simulated trees representing cell division with mutating microsatellites, and tested a range of available phylogenetic algorithms to reconstruct cell lineage. We found that distance-based approaches are fast and accurate with fully observed data. However, Maximum Parsimony and the computationally intensive probabilistic methods are more robust to missing data and therefore better suited to reconstructing cell lineage from NGS datasets. We also investigated how robust reconstruction algorithms are to different tree topologies and mutation generation models. Our results show that the flexibility of Maximum Parsimony and the probabilistic approaches mean they can be adapted to allow good reconstruction across a range of biologically relevant scenarios.

Strategies for genetic manipulation of adult stem cell-derived organoids

Organoid technology allows the expansion of primary epithelial cells from normal and diseased tissues, providing a unique model for human (patho)biology. In a three-dimensional environment, adult stem cells self-organize and differentiate to gain tissue-specific features. Accessibility to genetic manipulation enables the investigation of the molecular mechanisms underlying cell fate regulation, cell differentiation and cell interactions. In recent years, powerful methodologies using lentiviral transgenesis, CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, and single-cell readouts have been developed to study gene function and carry out genetic screens in organoids. However, the multicellularity and dynamic nature of stem cell-derived organoids also present challenges for genetic experimentation. In this review, we focus on adult gastrointestinal organoids and summarize the state-of-the-art protocols for successful transgenesis. We provide an outlook on emerging genetic techniques that could further increase the applicability of organoids and enhance the potential of organoid-based techniques to deepen our understanding of gene function in tissue biology.

DNA barcode to trace the development and differentiation of cord blood stem cells (Review)

Umbilical cord blood transplantation was first reported in 1980. Since then, additional research has indicated that umbilical cord blood stem cells (UCBSCs) have various advantages, such as multi-lineage differentiation potential and potent renewal activity, which may be induced to promote their differentiation into a variety of seed cells for tissue engineering and the treatment of clinical and metabolic diseases. Recent studies suggested that UCBSCs are able to differentiate into nerve cells, chondrocytes, hepatocyte-like cells, fat cells and osteoblasts. The culture of UCBSCs has developed from feeder-layer to feeder-free culture systems. The classical techniques of cell labeling and tracing by gene transfection and fluorescent dye and nucleic acid analogs have evolved to DNA barcode technology mediated by transposon/retrovirus, cyclization recombination-recombinase and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 strategies. DNA barcoding for cell development tracing has advanced to include single cells and single nucleic acid mutations. In the present study, the latest research findings on the development and differentiation, culture techniques and labeling and tracing of UCBSCs are reviewed. The present study may increase the current understanding of UCBSC biology and its clinical applications.

Applications of high-resolution clone tracking technologies in cancer

Tumors are comprised of dynamic, heterogenous cell populations characterized by numerous genetic and non-genetic alterations that accumulate and change with disease progression and treatment. Retrospective analyses of tumor evolution have relied on the measurement of genetic markers (such as copy number variants) to infer clonal dynamics. However, these approaches neglect the critical contributions of non-genetic drivers of disease. Techniques that harness the power of prospective clone tracking via heritable barcode tags provide an alternative strategy. In this review, we discuss methods for high-resolution, quantitative clone tracking, including recent advancements to pair barcode-specific functionality with scRNA-seq, clonal cell isolation, and in situ hybridization and imaging. We discuss these approaches in the context of cancer cell heterogeneity and treatment resistance.

A probabilistic framework for cellular lineage reconstruction using integrated single-cell 5-hydroxymethylcytosine and genomic DNA sequencing

Lineage reconstruction is central to understanding tissue development and maintenance. To overcome the limitations of current techniques that typically reconstruct clonal trees using genetically encoded reporters, we report scPECLR, a probabilistic algorithm to endogenously infer lineage trees at a single-cell-division resolution by using 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). When applied to 8-cell pre-implantation mouse embryos, scPECLR predicts the full lineage tree with greater than 95% accuracy. In addition, we developed scH&G-seq to sequence both 5hmC and genomic DNA from the same cell. Given that genomic DNA sequencing yields information on both copy number variations and single-nucleotide polymorphisms, when combined with scPECLR it enables more accurate lineage reconstruction of larger trees. Finally, we show that scPECLR can also be used to map chromosome strand segregation patterns during cell division, thereby providing a strategy to test the "immortal strand" hypothesis. Thus, scPECLR provides a generalized method to endogenously reconstruct lineage trees at an individual-cell-division resolution.

Unraveling Tumor Heterogeneity by Using DNA Barcoding Technologies to Develop Personalized Treatment Strategies in Advanced-Stage PDAC

Tumor heterogeneity is a hallmark of many solid tumors, including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), and an inherent consequence of the clonal evolution of cancers. As such, it is considered the underlying concept of many characteristics of the disease, including the ability to metastasize, adapt to different microenvironments, and to develop therapy resistance. Undoubtedly, the high mortality of PDAC can be attributed to a high extent to these properties. Despite its apparent importance, studying tumor heterogeneity has been a challenging task, mainly due to its complexity and lack of appropriate methods. However, in recent years molecular DNA barcoding has emerged as a sophisticated tool that allows mapping of individual cells or subpopulations in a cell pool to study heterogeneity and thus devise new personalized treatment strategies. In this review, we provide an overview of genetic and non-genetic inter- and intra-tumor heterogeneity and its impact on (personalized) treatment strategies in PDAC and address how DNA barcoding technologies work and can be applied to study this clinically highly relevant question.

Retrospective cell lineage reconstruction in humans by using short tandem repeats

Cell lineage analysis aims to uncover the developmental history of an organism back to its cell of origin. Recently, novel in vivo methods utilizing genome editing enabled important insights into the cell lineages of animals. In contrast, human cell lineage remains restricted to retrospective approaches, which still lack resolution and cost-efficient solutions. Here, we demonstrate a scalable platform based on short tandem repeats targeted by duplex molecular inversion probes. With this human cell lineage tracing method, we accurately reproduced a known lineage of DU145 cells and reconstructed lineages of healthy and metastatic single cells from a melanoma patient who matched the anatomical reference while adding further refinements. This platform allowed us to faithfully recapitulate lineages of developmental tissue formation in healthy cells. In summary, our lineage discovery platform can profile informative somatic mutations efficiently and provides solid lineage reconstructions even in challenging low-mutation-rate healthy single cells.

Exploiting Single-Cell Tools in Gene and Cell Therapy

Single-cell molecular tools have been developed at an incredible pace over the last five years as sequencing costs continue to drop and numerous molecular assays have been coupled to sequencing readouts. This rapid period of technological development has facilitated the delineation of individual molecular characteristics including the genome, transcriptome, epigenome, and proteome of individual cells, leading to an unprecedented resolution of the molecular networks governing complex biological systems. The immense power of single-cell molecular screens has been particularly highlighted through work in systems where cellular heterogeneity is a key feature, such as stem cell biology, immunology, and tumor cell biology. Single-cell-omics technologies have already contributed to the identification of novel disease biomarkers, cellular subsets, therapeutic targets and diagnostics, many of which would have been undetectable by bulk sequencing approaches. More recently, efforts to integrate single-cell multi-omics with single cell functional output and/or physical location have been challenging but have led to substantial advances. Perhaps most excitingly, there are emerging opportunities to reach beyond the description of static cellular states with recent advances in modulation of cells through CRISPR technology, in particular with the development of base editors which greatly raises the prospect of cell and gene therapies. In this review, we provide a brief overview of emerging single-cell technologies and discuss current developments in integrating single-cell molecular screens and performing single-cell multi-omics for clinical applications. We also discuss how single-cell molecular assays can be usefully combined with functional data to unpick the mechanism of cellular decision-making. Finally, we reflect upon the introduction of spatial transcriptomics and proteomics, its complementary role with single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and potential application in cellular and gene therapy.

Multifunctional barcoding with ClonMapper enables high-resolution study of clonal dynamics during tumor evolution and treatment

Lineage-tracing methods have enabled characterization of clonal dynamics in complex populations, but generally lack the ability to integrate genomic, epigenomic and transcriptomic measurements with live-cell manipulation of specific clones of interest. We developed a functionalized lineage-tracing system, ClonMapper, which integrates DNA barcoding with single-cell RNA sequencing and clonal isolation to comprehensively characterize thousands of clones within heterogeneous populations. Using ClonMapper, we identified subpopulations of a chronic lymphocytic leukemia cell line with distinct clonal compositions, transcriptional signatures and chemotherapy survivorship trajectories; patterns that were also observed in primary human chronic lymphocytic leukemia. The ability to retrieve specific clones before, during and after treatment enabled direct measurements of clonal diversification and durable subpopulation transcriptional signatures. ClonMapper is a powerful multifunctional approach to dissect the complex clonal dynamics of tumor progression and therapeutic response.

Lineage tracing and analog recording in mammalian cells by single-site DNA writing

Studying cellular and developmental processes in complex multicellular organisms can require the non-destructive observation of thousands to billions of cells deep within an animal. DNA recorders address the staggering difficulty of this task by converting transient cellular experiences into mutations at defined genomic sites that can be sequenced later in high throughput. However, existing recorders act primarily by erasing DNA. This is problematic because, in the limit of progressive erasure, no record remains. We present a DNA recorder called CHYRON (Cell History Recording by Ordered Insertion) that acts primarily by writing new DNA through the repeated insertion of random nucleotides at a single locus in temporal order. To achieve in vivo DNA writing, CHYRON combines Cas9, a homing guide RNA and the template-independent DNA polymerase terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase. We successfully applied CHYRON as an evolving lineage tracer and as a recorder of user-selected cellular stimuli.

The Intestinal Epithelium - Fluid Fate and Rigid Structure From Crypt Bottom to Villus Tip

The single-layered, simple epithelium of the gastro-intestinal tract controls nutrient uptake, coordinates our metabolism and shields us from pathogens. Despite its seemingly simple architecture, the intestinal lining consists of highly distinct cell populations that are continuously renewed by the same stem cell population. The need to maintain balanced diversity of cell types in an unceasingly regenerating tissue demands intricate mechanisms of spatial or temporal cell fate control. Recent advances in single-cell sequencing, spatio-temporal profiling and organoid technology have shed new light on the intricate micro-structure of the intestinal epithelium and on the mechanisms that maintain it. This led to the discovery of unexpected plasticity, zonation along the crypt-villus axis and new mechanism of self-organization. However, not only the epithelium, but also the underlying mesenchyme is distinctly structured. Several new studies have explored the intestinal stroma with single cell resolution and unveiled important interactions with the epithelium that are crucial for intestinal function and regeneration. In this review, we will discuss these recent findings and highlight the technologies that lead to their discovery. We will examine strengths and limitations of each approach and consider the wider impact of these results on our understanding of the intestine in health and disease.

A method for characterizing Cas9 variants via a one-million target sequence library of self-targeting sgRNAs

Detailed target-selectivity information and experiment-based efficacy prediction tools are primarily available for Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 (SpCas9). One obstacle to develop such tools is the rarity of accurate data. Here, we report a method termed ‘Self-targeting sgRNA Library Screen’ (SLS) for assaying the activity of Cas9 nucleases in bacteria using random target/sgRNA libraries of self-targeting sgRNAs. Exploiting more than a million different sequences, we demonstrate the use of the method with the SpCas9-HF1 variant to analyse its activity and reveal motifs that influence its target-selectivity. We have also developed an algorithm for predicting the activity of SpCas9-HF1 with an accuracy matching those of existing tools. SLS is a facile alternative to the much more expensive and laborious approaches used currently and has the capability of delivering sufficient amount of data for most of the orthologs and variants of SpCas9.

New insights on CRISPR/Cas9-based therapy for breast Cancer

CRISPR/Cas9 has revolutionized genome-editing techniques in various biological fields including human cancer research. Cancer is a multi-step process that encompasses the accumulation of mutations that result in the hallmark of the malignant state. The goal of cancer research is to identify these mutations and correlate them with the underlying tumorigenic process. Using CRISPR/Cas9 tool, specific mutations responsible for cancer initiation and/or progression could be corrected at least in animal models as a first step towards translational applications. In the present article, we review various novel strategies that employed CRISPR/Cas9 to treat breast cancer in both in vitro and in vivo systems.

The bone microenvironment invigorates metastatic seeds for further dissemination

Metastasis has been considered as the terminal step of tumor progression. However, recent genomic studies suggest that many metastases are initiated by further spread of other metastases. Nevertheless, the corresponding pre-clinical models are lacking, and underlying mechanisms are elusive. Using several approaches, including parabiosis and an evolving barcode system, we demonstrated that the bone microenvironment facilitates breast and prostate cancer cells to further metastasize and establish multi-organ secondary metastases. We uncovered that this metastasis-promoting effect is driven by epigenetic reprogramming that confers stem cell-like properties on cancer cells disseminated from bone lesions. Furthermore, we discovered that enhanced EZH2 activity mediates the increased stemness and metastasis capacity. The same findings also apply to single cell-derived populations, indicating mechanisms distinct from clonal selection. Taken together, our work revealed an unappreciated role of the bone microenvironment in metastasis evolution and elucidated an epigenomic reprogramming process driving terminal-stage, multi-organ metastases.