Symbiotic conversations are revealed under genetic interrogation

Epidermal microorganisms contributed to the toxic mechanism of nZVI and TCEP in earthworms by robbing metal elements and nutrients

Disrupting effects of pollutants on symbiotic microbiota have been regarded as an important mechanism of host toxicity, with most current research focusing on the intestinal microbiota. In fact, the epidermal microbiota, which participates in the nutrient exchange between hosts and environments, could play a crucial role in host toxicity via community changes. To compare the contributions of intestinal and epidermal symbiotic microorganisms to host toxicity, this study designed single and combined scenarios of soil contamination [nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) and tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP)], and revealed the coupling mechanisms between intestinal/epidermal symbiotic bacterial communities and earthworm toxicological endpoints. Microbiome analysis showed that 15% of intestinal microbes were highly correlated with host endpoints, compared to 45% of epidermal microbes showing a similar correlation. Functional comparisons revealed that key species on the epidermis were mainly heterotrophic microbes with genetic abilities to utilize metal elements and carbohydrate nutrients. Further verifications demonstrated that when facing the co-contamination of nZVI and TCEP, certain symbiotic microorganisms became dominant and consumed zinc, copper, and manganese along with saccharides and amino acids, which may be responsible for the nutritional deficiencies in the host earthworms. The findings can enrich the understanding of the coupling relationship between symbiotic microorganisms and host toxicity, highlighting the importance of epidermal microorganisms in host resistance to environmental pollution.

CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing in Steinernema entomopathogenic nematodes

Molecular tool development in traditionally non-tractable animals opens new avenues to study gene functions in the relevant ecological context. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) Steinernema and their symbiotic bacteria of Xenorhabdus spp are a valuable experimental system in the laboratory and are applicable in the field to promote agricultural productivity. The infective juvenile (IJ) stage of the nematode packages mutualistic symbiotic bacteria in the intestinal pocket and invades insects that are agricultural pests. The lack of consistent and heritable genetics tools in EPN targeted mutagenesis severely restricted the study of molecular mechanisms underlying both parasitic and mutualistic interactions. Here, I report a protocol for CRISPR-Cas9 based genome-editing that is successful in two EPN species, S. carpocapsae and S. hermaphroditum . I adapted a gonadal microinjection technique in S. carpocapsae , which created on-target modifications of a homologue Sc-dpy-10 (cuticular collagen) by homology-directed repair. A similar delivery approach was used to introduce various alleles in S. hermaphroditum including Sh-dpy-10 and Sh-unc-22 (a muscle gene), resulting in visible and heritable phenotypes of dumpy and twitching, respectively. Using conditionally dominant alleles of Sh-unc-22 as a co-CRISPR marker, I successfully modified a second locus encoding Sh-Daf-22 (a homologue of human sterol carrier protein SCPx), predicted to function as a core enzyme in the biosynthesis of nematode pheromone that is required for IJ development. As a proof of concept, Sh-daf-22 null mutant showed IJ developmental defects in vivo ( in insecta) . This research demonstrates that Steinernema spp are highly tractable for targeted mutagenesis and has great potential in the study of gene functions under controlled laboratory conditions within the relevant context of its ecological niche.

Linking plant functional genes to rhizosphere microbes: a review

The importance of rhizomicrobiome in plant development, nutrition acquisition and stress tolerance is unquestionable. Relevant plant genes corresponding to the above functions also regulate rhizomicrobiome construction. Deciphering the molecular regulatory network of plant-microbe interactions could substantially contribute to improving crop yield and quality. Here, the plant gene-related nutrient uptake, biotic and abiotic stress resistance, which may influence the composition and function of microbial communities, are discussed in this review. In turn, the influence of microbes on the expression of functional plant genes, and thereby plant growth and immunity, is also reviewed. Moreover, we have specifically paid attention to techniques and methods used to link plant functional genes and rhizomicrobiome. Finally, we propose to further explore the molecular mechanisms and signalling pathways of microbe-host gene interactions, which could potentially be used for managing plant health in agricultural systems.

The microbiome of the marine flatworm Macrostomum lignano provides fitness advantages and exhibits circadian rhythmicity

The close association between animals and their associated microbiota is usually beneficial for both partners. Here, we used a simple marine model invertebrate, the flatworm Macrostomum lignano, to characterize the host-microbiota interaction in detail. This analysis revealed that the different developmental stages each harbor a specific microbiota. Studies with gnotobiotic animals clarified the physiological significance of the microbiota. While no fitness benefits were mediated by the microbiota when food was freely available, animals with microbiota showed significantly increased fitness with a reduced food supply. The microbiota of M. lignano shows circadian rhythmicity, affecting both the total bacterial load and the behavior of specific taxa. Moreover, the presence of the worm influences the composition of the bacterial consortia in the environment. In summary, the Macrostomum-microbiota system described here can serve as a general model for host-microbe interactions in marine invertebrates.

Bioactivity Profiling and Untargeted Metabolomics of Microbiota Associated with Mesopelagic Jellyfish Periphylla periphylla

The marine mesopelagic zone extends from water depths of 200 m to 1000 m and is home to a vast number and diversity of species. It is one of the least understood regions of the marine environment with untapped resources of pharmaceutical relevance. The mesopelagic jellyfish Periphylla periphylla is a well-known and widely distributed species in the mesopelagic zone; however, the diversity or the pharmaceutical potential of its cultivable microbiota has not been explored. In this study, we isolated microorganisms associated with the inner and outer umbrella of P. periphylla collected in Irminger Sea by a culture-dependent approach, and profiled their chemical composition and biological activities. Sixteen mostly gram-negative bacterial isolates were selected and subjected to an OSMAC cultivation regime approach using liquid and solid marine broth (MB) and glucose-yeast-malt (GYM) media. Their ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extracts were assessed for cytotoxicity and antimicrobial activity against fish and human pathogens. All, except one extract, displayed diverse levels of antimicrobial activities. Based on low IC₅₀ values, four most bioactive gram-negative strains; Polaribacter sp. SU124, Shewanella sp. SU126, Psychrobacter sp. SU143 and Psychrobacter sp. SU137, were prioritized for an in-depth comparative and untargeted metabolomics analysis using feature-based molecular networking. Various chemical classes such as diketopiperazines, polyhydroxybutyrates (PHBs), bile acids and other lipids were putatively annotated, highlighting the biotechnological potential in P. periphylla-associated microbiota as well as gram-negative bacteria. This is the first study providing an insight into the cultivable bacterial community associated with the mesopelagic jellyfish P. periphylla and, indeed, the first to mine the metabolome and antimicrobial activities of these microorganisms.

Proteolytic Activity of DegP Is Required for the Burkholderia Symbiont To Persist in Its Host Bean Bug

Symbiosis requires the adaptation of symbiotic bacteria to the host environment. Symbiotic factors for bacterial adaptation have been studied in various experimental models, including the Burkholderia-bean bug symbiosis model. Previously identified symbiotic factors of Burkholderia symbionts of bean bugs provided insight into the host environment being stressful to the symbionts. Because DegP, which functions as both a protease and a chaperone, supports bacterial growth under various stressful conditions, we hypothesized that DegP might be a novel symbiotic factor of Burkholderia symbionts in the symbiotic association with bean bugs. The expression level of degP was highly elevated in symbiotic Burkholderia cells in comparison with cultured cells. When the degP-deficient strain competed for symbiotic association against the wild-type strain, the ΔdegP strain showed no symbiotic competitiveness. In vivo monoinfection with the ΔdegP strain revealed a lower symbiont titer in the symbiotic organ than that of the wild-type strain, indicating that the ΔdegP strain failed to persist in the host. In in vitro assays, the ΔdegP strain showed susceptibility to heat and high-salt stressors and a decreased level of biofilm formation. To further determine the role of the proteolytic activity of DegP in symbiosis, we generated missense mutant DegP^S248A exhibiting a defect in protease activity only. The ΔdegP strain complemented with degP^S248A showed in vitro characteristics similar to those of the ΔdegP strain and failed to persist in the symbiotic organ. Together, the results of our study demonstrated that the proteolytic activity of DegP, which is involved in the stress resistance and biofilm formation of the Burkholderia symbiont, plays an essential role in symbiotic persistence in the host bean bug. IMPORTANCE Bacterial DegP has dual functions as a protease and a chaperone and supports bacterial growth under stressful conditions. In symbioses involving bacteria, bacterial symbionts encounter various stressors and may need functional DegP for symbiotic association with the host. Using the Burkholderia-bean bug symbiosis model, which is a useful model for identifying bacterial symbiotic factors, we demonstrated that DegP is indeed a symbiotic factor of Burkholderia persistence in its host bean bug. In vitro experiments to understand the symbiotic mechanisms of degP revealed that degP confers resistance to heat and high-salt stresses. In addition, degP supports biofilm formation, which is a previously identified persistence factor of the Burkholderia symbiont. Furthermore, using a missense mutation in a protease catalytic site of degP, we specifically elucidated that the proteolytic activity of degP plays essential roles in stress resistance, biofilm formation, and, thus, symbiotic persistence in the host bean bug.

How It All Begins: Bacterial Factors Mediating the Colonization of Invertebrate Hosts by Beneficial Symbionts

Beneficial associations with bacteria are widespread across animals, spanning a range of symbiont localizations, transmission routes, and functions. While some of these associations have evolved into obligate relationships with permanent symbiont localization within the host, the majority require colonization of every host generation from the environment or via maternal provisions. Across the broad diversity of host species and tissue types that beneficial bacteria can colonize, there are some highly specialized strategies for establishment yet also some common patterns in the molecular basis of colonization. This review focuses on the mechanisms underlying the early stage of beneficial bacterium-invertebrate associations, from initial contact to the establishment of the symbionts in a specific location of the host's body. We first reflect on general selective pressures that can drive the transition from a free-living to a host-associated lifestyle in bacteria. We then cover bacterial molecular factors for colonization in symbioses from both model and nonmodel invertebrate systems where these have been studied, including terrestrial and aquatic host taxa. Finally, we discuss how interactions between multiple colonizing bacteria and priority effects can influence colonization. Taking the bacterial perspective, we emphasize the importance of developing new experimentally tractable systems to derive general insights into the ecological factors and molecular adaptations underlying the origin and establishment of beneficial symbioses in animals.

RNA-Sequencing of Heterorhabditis nematodes to identify factors involved in symbiosis with Photorhabdus bacteria

Background

Nematodes are a major group of soil inhabiting organisms. Heterorhabditis nematodes are insect-pathogenic nematodes and live in a close symbiotic association with Photorhabdus bacteria. Heterorhabditis-Photorhabdus pair offers a powerful and genetically tractable model to study animal-microbe symbiosis. It is possible to generate symbiont bacteria free (axenic) stages in Heterorhabditis. Here, we compared the transcriptome of symbiotic early-adult stage Heterorhabditis nematodes with axenic early-adult nematodes to determine the nematode genes and pathways involved in symbiosis with Photorhabdus bacteria.

Results

A de-novo reference transcriptome assembly of 95.7 Mb was created for H. bacteriophora by using all the reads. The assembly contained 46,599 transcripts with N50 value of 2,681 bp and the average transcript length was 2,054 bp. The differentially expressed transcripts were identified by mapping reads from symbiotic and axenic nematodes to the reference assembly. A total of 754 differentially expressed transcripts were identified in symbiotic nematodes as compared to the axenic nematodes. The ribosomal pathway was identified as the most affected among the differentially expressed transcripts. Additionally, 12,151 transcripts were unique to symbiotic nematodes. Endocytosis, cAMP signalling and focal adhesion were the top three enriched pathways in symbiotic nematodes, while a large number of transcripts coding for various responses against bacteria, such as bacterial recognition, canonical immune signalling pathways, and antimicrobial effectors could also be identified.

Conclusions

The symbiotic Heterorhabditis nematodes respond to the presence of symbiotic bacteria by expressing various transcripts involved in a multi-layered immune response which might represent non-systemic and evolved localized responses to maintain mutualistic bacteria at non-threatening levels. Subject to further functional validation of the identified transcripts, our findings suggest that Heterorhabditis nematode immune system plays a critical role in maintenance of symbiosis with Photorhabdus bacteria.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-022-08952-4.

Impact of transit time on the reproductive capacity of Euprymna scolopes as a laboratory animal

BACKGROUND

The Hawaiian bobtail squid Euprymna scolopes hosts various marine bacterial symbionts, and these symbioses have served as models for the animal-microbe relationships that are important for host health. Within a light organ, E. scolopes harbors populations of the bacterium Vibrio fischeri, which produce low levels of bioluminescence that the squid uses for camouflage. The symbiosis is initially established after a juvenile squid hatches from its egg and acquires bacterial symbionts from the ambient marine environment. The relative ease with which a cohort of wild-caught E. scolopes can be maintained in a mariculture facility has facilitated over 3 decades of research involving juvenile squid. However, because E. scolopes is native to the Hawaiian archipelago, their transport from Hawaii to research facilities often represents a stress that has the potential to impact their physiology.

RESULTS

Here, we describe animal survival and reproductive capacity associated with a cohort of squid assembled from two shipments with markedly different transit times. We found that the lower juvenile squid counts generated by animals with the longer transit time were not due to the discrepancy in shipment but instead to fewer female squid that produced egg clutches at an elevated rate, which we term hyper-reproductivity. We find that hyper-reproductive females were responsible for 58% of the egg clutches laid.

CONCLUSIONS

The significance of these findings for E. scolopes biology and husbandry is discussed, thereby providing a platform for future investigation and further development of this cephalopod as a valuable lab animal for microbiology research.

Symbiont transmission in marine sponges: reproduction, development, and metamorphosis

Marine sponges (phylum Porifera) form symbioses with diverse microbial communities that can be transmitted between generations through their developmental stages. Here, we integrate embryology and microbiology to review how symbiotic microorganisms are transmitted in this early-diverging lineage. We describe that vertical transmission is widespread but not universal, that microbes are vertically transmitted during a select developmental window, and that properties of the developmental microbiome depends on whether a species is a high or low microbial abundance sponge. Reproduction, development, and symbiosis are thus deeply rooted, but why these partnerships form remains the central and elusive tenet of these developmental symbioses.

The relevance of studying insect-nematode interactions for human disease

Vertebrate-parasitic nematodes cause debilitating, chronic infections in millions of people worldwide. The burden of these so-called 'neglected tropical diseases' is often carried by poorer socioeconomic communities in part because research on parasitic nematodes and their vertebrate hosts is challenging and costly. However, complex biological and pathological processes can be modeled in simpler organisms. Here, we consider how insight into the interactions between entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN), their insect hosts and bacterial symbionts may reveal novel treatment targets for parasitic nematode infections. We argue that a combination of approaches that target nematodes, as well as the interaction of pathogens with insect vectors and bacterial symbionts, offer potentially effective, but underexplored opportunities.

The entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema hermaphroditum is a self-fertilizing hermaphrodite and a genetically tractable system for the study of parasitic and mutualistic symbiosis

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs), including Heterorhabditis and Steinernema, are parasitic to insects and contain mutualistically symbiotic bacteria in their intestines (Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus, respectively) and therefore offer opportunities to study both mutualistic and parasitic symbiosis. The establishment of genetic tools in EPNs has been impeded by limited genetic tractability, inconsistent growth in vitro, variable cryopreservation, and low mating efficiency. We obtained the recently described Steinernema hermaphroditum strain CS34 and optimized its in vitro growth, with a rapid generation time on a lawn of its native symbiotic bacteria Xenorhabdus griffiniae. We developed a simple and efficient cryopreservation method. Previously, S. hermaphroditum isolated from insect hosts was described as producing hermaphrodites in the first generation. We discovered that CS34, when grown in vitro, produced consecutive generations of autonomously reproducing hermaphrodites accompanied by rare males. We performed mutagenesis screens in S. hermaphroditum that produced mutant lines with visible and heritable phenotypes. Genetic analysis of the mutants demonstrated that this species reproduces by self-fertilization rather than parthenogenesis and that its sex is determined chromosomally. Genetic mapping has thus far identified markers on the X chromosome and three of four autosomes. We report that S. hermaphroditum CS34 is the first consistently hermaphroditic EPN and is suitable for genetic model development to study naturally occurring mutualistic symbiosis and insect parasitism.

Bioluminescence and Photoreception in Unicellular Organisms: Light-Signalling in a Bio-Communication Perspective

Bioluminescence, the emission of light catalysed by luciferases, has evolved in many taxa from bacteria to vertebrates and is predominant in the marine environment. It is now well established that in animals possessing a nervous system capable of integrating light stimuli, bioluminescence triggers various behavioural responses and plays a role in intra- or interspecific visual communication. The function of light emission in unicellular organisms is less clear and it is currently thought that it has evolved in an ecological framework, to be perceived by visual animals. For example, while it is thought that bioluminescence allows bacteria to be ingested by zooplankton or fish, providing them with favourable conditions for growth and dispersal, the luminous flashes emitted by dinoflagellates may have evolved as an anti-predation system against copepods. In this short review, we re-examine this paradigm in light of recent findings in microorganism photoreception, signal integration and complex behaviours. Numerous studies show that on the one hand, bacteria and protists, whether autotrophs or heterotrophs, possess a variety of photoreceptors capable of perceiving and integrating light stimuli of different wavelengths. Single-cell light-perception produces responses ranging from phototaxis to more complex behaviours. On the other hand, there is growing evidence that unicellular prokaryotes and eukaryotes can perform complex tasks ranging from habituation and decision-making to associative learning, despite lacking a nervous system. Here, we focus our analysis on two taxa, bacteria and dinoflagellates, whose bioluminescence is well studied. We propose the hypothesis that similar to visual animals, the interplay between light-emission and reception could play multiple roles in intra- and interspecific communication and participate in complex behaviour in the unicellular world.

A lasting symbiosis: how the Hawaiian bobtail squid finds and keeps its bioluminescent bacterial partner

For more than 30 years, the association between the Hawaiian bobtail squid, Euprymna scolopes, and the bioluminescent bacterium Vibrio fischeri has been studied as a model system for understanding the colonization of animal epithelia by symbiotic bacteria. The squid-vibrio light-organ system provides the exquisite resolution only possible with the study of a binary partnership. The impact of this relationship on the partners' biology has been broadly characterized, including their ecology and evolutionary biology as well as the underlying molecular mechanisms of symbiotic dynamics. Much has been learned about the factors that foster initial light-organ colonization, and more recently about the maturation and long-term maintenance of the association. This Review synthesizes the results of recent research on the light-organ association and also describes the development of new horizons for E. scolopes as a model organism that promises to inform biology and biomedicine about the basic nature of host-microorganism interactions.

Bacteria Isolated From the Antarctic Sponge Iophon sp. Reveals Mechanisms of Symbiosis in Sporosarcina, Cellulophaga, and Nesterenkonia

Antarctic sponges harbor a diverse range of microorganisms that perform unique metabolic functions for nutrient cycles. Understanding how microorganisms establish functional sponge-microbe interactions in the Antarctic marine ecosystem provides clues about the success of these ancient animals in this realm. Here, we use a culture-dependent approach and genome sequencing to investigate the molecular determinants that promote a dual lifestyle in three bacterial genera Sporosarcina, Cellulophaga, and Nesterenkonia. Phylogenomic analyses showed that four sponge-associated isolates represent putative novel bacterial species within the Sporosarcina and Nesterenkonia genera and that the fifth bacterial isolate corresponds to Cellulophaga algicola. We inferred that isolated sponge-associated bacteria inhabit similarly marine sponges and also seawater. Comparative genomics revealed that these sponge-associated bacteria are enriched in symbiotic lifestyle-related genes. Specific adaptations related to the cold Antarctic environment are features of the bacterial strains isolated here. Furthermore, we showed evidence that the vitamin B5 synthesis-related gene, panE from Nesterenkonia E16_7 and E16_10, was laterally transferred within Actinobacteria members. Together, these findings indicate that the genomes of sponge-associated strains differ from other related genomes based on mechanisms that may contribute to the life in association with sponges and the extreme conditions of the Antarctic environment.

A lasting symbiosis: how Vibrio fischeri finds a squid partner and persists within its natural host

As our understanding of the human microbiome progresses, so does the need for natural experimental animal models that promote a mechanistic understanding of beneficial microorganism-host interactions. Years of research into the exclusive symbiosis between the Hawaiian bobtail squid, Euprymna scolopes, and the bioluminescent bacterium Vibrio fischeri have permitted a detailed understanding of those bacterial genes underlying signal exchange and rhythmic activities that result in a persistent, beneficial association, as well as glimpses into the evolution of symbiotic competence. Migrating from the ambient seawater to regions deep inside the light-emitting organ of the squid, V. fischeri experiences, recognizes and adjusts to the changing environmental conditions. Here, we review key advances over the past 15 years that are deepening our understanding of these events.

Animal development in the microbial world: The power of experimental model systems

The development of powerful model systems has been a critical strategy for understanding the mechanisms underlying the progression of an animal through its ontogeny. Here we provide two examples that allow deep and mechanistic insight into the development of specific animal systems. Species of the cnidarian genus Hydra have provided excellent models for studying host-microbe interactions and how metaorganisms function in vivo. Studies of the Hawaiian bobtail squid Euprymna scolopes and its luminous bacterial partner Vibrio fischeri have been used for over 30 years to understand the impact of a broad array of levels, from ecology to genomics, on the development and persistence of symbiosis. These examples provide an integrated perspective of how developmental processes work and evolve within the context of a microbial world, a new view that opens vast horizons for developmental biology research. The Hydra and the squid systems also lend an example of how profound insights can be discovered by taking advantage of the "experiments" that evolution had done in shaping conserved developmental processes.

Evolutionary "Experiments" in Symbiosis: The Study of Model Animals Provides Insights into the Mechanisms Underlying the Diversity of Host-Microbe Interactions

Current work in experimental biology revolves around a handful of animal species. Studying only a few organisms limits science to the answers that those organisms can provide. Nature has given us an overwhelming diversity of animals to study, and recent technological advances have greatly accelerated the ability to generate genetic and genomic tools to develop model organisms for research on host-microbe interactions. With the help of such models the authors therefore hope to construct a more complete picture of the mechanisms that underlie crucial interactions in a given metaorganism (entity consisting of a eukaryotic host with all its associated microbial partners). As reviewed here, new knowledge of the diversity of host-microbe interactions found across the animal kingdom will provide new insights into how animals develop, evolve, and succumb to the disease.

Model systems for the study of how symbiotic associations between animals and extracellular bacterial partners are established and maintained

This contribution describes the current state of experimental model development and use as a strategy for gaining insight into the form and function of certain types of host-microbe associations. Development of quality models for the study of symbiotic systems will be critical not only to facilitate an understanding of mechanisms underlying symbiosis, but also for providing insights into how drug development can promote healthy animal-microbe interactions as well as the treatment of pathogenic infections. Because of the growing awareness over the last decade of the importance of symbiosis in biology, a number of model systems has emerged to examine how these partnerships are maintained within and across generations of the host. The focus here will be upon host-bacterial symbiotic systems that, as in humans, (i) are acquired from the environment each generation, or horizontally transmitted, and (ii) are defined by interactions at the interface of their cellular boundaries, i.e., extracellular symbiotic associations. As with the use of models in other fields of biology where complexity is daunting (e.g., developmental biology or brain circuitry), each model has its strengths and weaknesses, i.e., no one model system will provide easy access to all the questions defining what is conserved in cell-cell interactions in symbiosis and what creates diversity within such partnerships. Rather, as discussed here, the more models explored, the richer our understanding of these associations is likely to be.

Rhizosphere Microbiomes from Root Knot Nematode Non-infested Plants Suppress Nematode Infection

Root knot nematodes (RKN, Meloidogyne spp.) are serious pathogens of numerous crops worldwide. Understanding the roles plant rhizosphere soil microbiome play during RKN infection is very important. The current study aims at investigating the impacts of soil microbiome on the activity of RKN. In this study, the 16S rRNA genes of the bacterial communities from nematode-infested and non-infested rhizosphere soils from four different plants were sequenced on the Illumina Hi-Seq platform. The soil microbiome effects on RKN infection were tested in a greenhouse assay. The non-infested soils had more microbial diversity than the infested soils from all plant rhizospheres, and both soil types had exclusive microbial communities. The inoculation of the microbiomes from eggplant and cucumber non-infested soils to tomato plants significantly alleviated the RKN infection, while the microbiome from infested soil showed increased the RKN infection. Furthermore, bacteria Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillus sp. were screened out from non-infested eggplant soil and exhibited biocontrol activity to RKN on tomato. Our findings suggest that microbes may regulate RKN infection in plants and are involved in biocontrol of RKN.

Vertical transmission of sponge microbiota is inconsistent and unfaithful

Co-evolutionary theory predicts that if beneficial microbial symbionts improve host fitness, they should be faithfully transmitted to offspring. More recently, the hologenome theory of evolution predicts resemblance between parent and offspring microbiomes and high partner fidelity between host species and their vertically transmitted microbes. Here, we test these ideas in multiple coexisting host species with highly diverse microbiota, leveraging known parent-offspring pairs sampled from eight species of wild marine sponges (Porifera). We found that the processes governing vertical transmission were both neutral and selective. A neutral model was a better fit to larval (R² = 0.66) than to the adult microbiota (R² = 0.27), suggesting that the importance of non-neutral processes increases as the sponge host matures. Microbes that are enriched above neutral expectations in adults were disproportionately transferred to offspring. Patterns of vertical transmission were, however, incomplete: larval sponges shared, on average, 44.8% of microbes with their parents, which was not higher than the fraction they shared with nearby non-parental adults. Vertical transmission was also inconsistent across siblings, as larval sponges from the same parent shared only 17% of microbes. Finally, we found no evidence that vertically transmitted microbes are faithful to a single sponge host species. Surprisingly, larvae were as likely to share vertically transmitted microbes with larvae from other sponge species as they were with their own species. Our study demonstrates that common predictions of vertical transmission that stem from species-poor systems are not necessarily true when scaling up to diverse and complex microbiomes.

EcoFABs: advancing microbiome science through standardized fabricated ecosystems

Microbiomes play critical roles in ecosystems and human health, yet in most cases scientists lack standardized and reproducible model microbial communities. The development of fabricated microbial ecosystems, which we term EcoFABs, will provide such model systems for microbiome studies.

Symbiont-Mediated Defense against Legionella pneumophila in Amoebae

Bacterial pathogens are generally investigated in the context of disease. To prevent outbreaks, it is essential to understand their lifestyle and interactions with other microbes in their natural environment. Legionella pneumophila is an important human respiratory pathogen that survives and multiplies in biofilms or intracellularly within protists, such as amoebae. Importantly, transmission to humans occurs from these environmental sources. Legionella infection generally leads to rapid host cell lysis. It was therefore surprising to observe that amoebae, including fresh environmental isolates, were well protected during Legionella infection when the bacterial symbiont Protochlamydia amoebophila was also present. Legionella was not prevented from invading amoebae but was impeded in its ability to develop fully virulent progeny and were ultimately cleared in the presence of the symbiont. This study highlights how ecology and virulence of an important human pathogen is affected by a defensive amoeba symbiont, with possibly major consequences for public health.

Legionella pneumophila is an important opportunistic pathogen for which environmental reservoirs are crucial for the infection of humans. In the environment, free-living amoebae represent key hosts providing nutrients and shelter for highly efficient intracellular proliferation of L. pneumophila, which eventually leads to lysis of the protist. However, the significance of other bacterial players for L. pneumophila ecology is poorly understood. In this study, we used a ubiquitous amoeba and bacterial endosymbiont to investigate the impact of this common association on L. pneumophila infection. We demonstrate that L. pneumophila proliferation was severely suppressed in Acanthamoeba castellanii harboring the chlamydial symbiont Protochlamydia amoebophila. The amoebae survived the infection and were able to resume growth. Different environmental amoeba isolates containing the symbiont were equally well protected as different L. pneumophila isolates were diminished, suggesting ecological relevance of this symbiont-mediated defense. Furthermore, protection was not mediated by impaired L. pneumophila uptake. Instead, we observed reduced virulence of L. pneumophila released from symbiont-containing amoebae. Pronounced gene expression changes in the presence of the symbiont indicate that interference with the transition to the transmissive phase impedes the L. pneumophila infection. Finally, our data show that the defensive response of amoebae harboring P. amoebophila leaves the amoebae with superior fitness reminiscent of immunological memory. Given that mutualistic associations between bacteria and amoebae are widely distributed, P. amoebophila and potentially other amoeba endosymbionts could be key in shaping environmental survival, abundance, and virulence of this important pathogen, thereby affecting the frequency of human infection.

Natural Strain Variation Reveals Diverse Biofilm Regulation in Squid-Colonizing Vibrio fischeri

The mutualistic symbiont Vibrio fischeri builds a symbiotic biofilm during colonization of squid hosts. Regulation of the exopolysaccharide component, termed Syp, has been examined in strain ES114, where production is controlled by a phosphorelay that includes the inner membrane hybrid histidine kinase RscS. Most strains that lack RscS or encode divergent RscS proteins cannot colonize a squid host unless RscS from a squid symbiont is heterologously expressed. In this study, we examine V. fischeri isolates worldwide to understand the landscape of biofilm regulation during beneficial colonization. We provide a detailed study of three distinct evolutionary groups of V. fischeri and find that while the RscS-Syp biofilm pathway is required in one of the groups, two other groups of squid symbionts require Syp independent of RscS. Mediterranean squid symbionts, including V. fischeri SR5, colonize without an RscS homolog encoded by their genome. Additionally, group A V. fischeri strains, which form a tightly related clade of Hawaii isolates, have a frameshift in rscS and do not require the gene for squid colonization or competitive fitness. These same strains have a frameshift in sypE, and we provide evidence that this group A sypE allele leads to an upregulation in biofilm activity. Thus, this work describes the central importance of Syp biofilm in colonization of diverse isolates and demonstrates that significant evolutionary transitions correspond to regulatory changes in the syp pathway.IMPORTANCE Biofilms are surface-associated, matrix-encased bacterial aggregates that exhibit enhanced protection to antimicrobial agents. Previous work has established the importance of biofilm formation by a strain of luminous Vibrio fischeri bacteria as the bacteria colonize their host, the Hawaiian bobtail squid. In this study, expansion of this work to many natural isolates revealed that biofilm genes are universally required, yet there has been a shuffling of the regulators of those genes. This work provides evidence that even when bacterial behaviors are conserved, dynamic regulation of those behaviors can underlie evolution of the host colonization phenotype. Furthermore, this work emphasizes the importance of investigating natural diversity as we seek to understand molecular mechanisms in bacteria.

Reports from a Healthy Community: The 7th Conference on Beneficial Microbes

The last two decades have seen an explosion in research about the beneficial microbial communities associated with plants and animals. Initially this explosion was driven by technological advances that enabled explorations of microbiomes on unprecedented scales. Increasingly, the drive is coming from conceptual advances that are the fruit of research investments into experimental systems to probe the functions of these beneficial microbes and their mechanisms of action. The Conference on Beneficial Microbes has been one of the premiere venues for this research. The 7th Conference on Beneficial Microbes was held July 8-11, 2018, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Memorial Union. The 308 attendees-representing academia, industry, journals, and funding agencies-participated in an intense 4-day meeting encompassing research frontiers in beneficial microbiology and microbiome science.

Avian Influenza Virus Subtype H9N2 Affects Intestinal Microbiota, Barrier Structure Injury, and Inflammatory Intestinal Disease in the Chicken Ileum

Avian influenza virus subtype H9N2 (H9N2 AIV) has caused significant losses to the poultry industry due to the high mortality associated with secondary infections attributable to E. coli. This study tries to address the underlying secondary mechanisms after H9N2 AIV infection. Initially, nine day-old specific pathogen-free chickens were assigned to control (uninfected) and H9N2-infected groups, respectively. Using Illumina sequencing, histological examination, and quantitative real-time PCR, it was found that H9N2 AIV caused intestinal microbiota disorder, injury, and inflammatory damage to the intestinal mucosa. Notably, the genera Escherichia, especially E. coli, significantly increased (p < 0.01) at five days post-infection (dpi), while Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, and other probiotic organisms were significantly reduced (p < 0.01). Simultaneously, the mRNA expression of tight junction proteins (ZO-1, claudin 3, and occludin), TFF2, and Muc2 were significantly reduced (p < 0.01), indicating the destruction of the intestinal epithelial cell tight junctions and the damage of mucin layer construction. Moreover, the mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines IFN-γ, IL-22, IFN-α, and IL-17A in intestinal epithelial cells were significantly upregulated, resulting in the inflammatory response and intestinal injury. Our findings may provide a theoretical basis for observed gastroenteritis-like symptoms such as diarrhea and secondary E. coli infection following H9N2 AIV infection.

Studying the Symbiotic Bacterium Xenorhabdus nematophila in Individual, Living Steinernema carpocapsae Nematodes Using Microfluidic Systems

Animal-microbe symbioses are ubiquitous in nature and scientifically important in diverse areas, including ecology, medicine, and agriculture. Steinernema nematodes and Xenorhabdus bacteria compose an established, successful model system for investigating microbial pathogenesis and mutualism. The bacterium Xenorhabdus nematophila is a species-specific mutualist of insect-infecting Steinernema carpocapsae nematodes. The bacterium colonizes a specialized intestinal pocket within the infective stage of the nematode, which transports the bacteria between insects that are killed and consumed by the pair for reproduction. Current understanding of the interaction between the infective-stage nematode and its bacterial colonizers is based largely on population-level, snapshot time point studies on these organisms. This limitation arises because investigating temporal dynamics of the bacterium within the nematode is impeded by the difficulty of isolating and maintaining individual living nematodes and tracking colonizing bacterial cells over time. To overcome this challenge, we developed a microfluidic system that enables us to spatially isolate and microscopically observe individual, living Steinernema nematodes and monitor the growth and development of the associated X. nematophila bacterial communities-starting from a single cell or a few cells-over weeks. Our data demonstrate, to our knowledge, the first direct, temporal, in vivo visual analysis of a symbiosis system and the application of this system to reveal continuous dynamics of the symbiont population in the living host animal. IMPORTANCE This paper describes an experimental system for directly investigating population dynamics of a symbiotic bacterium, Xenorhabdus nematophila, in its host-the infective stage of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae. Tracking individual and groups of bacteria in individual host nematodes over days and weeks yielded insight into dynamic growth and topology changes of symbiotic bacterial populations within infective juvenile nematodes. Our approach for studying symbioses between bacteria and nematodes provides a system to investigate long-term host-microbe interactions in individual nematodes and extrapolate the lessons learned to other bacterium-animal interactions.

Unforeseen swimming and gliding mode of an insect gut symbiont, Burkholderia sp. RPE64, with wrapping of the flagella around its cell body

A bean bug symbiont, Burkholderia sp. RPE64, selectively colonizes the gut crypts by flagella-mediated motility: however, the mechanism for this colonization remains unclear. Here, to obtain clues to this mechanism, we characterized the swimming motility of the Burkholderia symbiont under an advanced optical microscope. High-speed imaging of cells enabled the detection of turn events with up to 5-ms temporal resolution, indicating that cells showed reversal motions (θ ~ 180°) with rapid changes in speed by a factor of 3.6. Remarkably, staining of the flagellar filaments with a fluorescent dye Cy3 revealed that the flagellar filaments wrap around the cell body with a motion like that of a ribbon streamer in rhythmic gymnastics. A motility assay with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy revealed that the left-handed flagellum wound around the cell body and propelled it forward by its clockwise rotation. We also detected periodic-fluorescent signals of flagella on the glass surface, suggesting that flagella possibly contacted the solid surface directly and produced a gliding-like motion driven by flagellar rotation. Finally, the wrapping motion was also observed in a symbiotic bacterium of the bobtail squid, Aliivibrio fischeri, suggesting that this motility mode may contribute to migration on the mucus-filled narrow passage connecting to the symbiotic organ.

Role of Endosymbionts in Insect-Parasitic Nematode Interactions

Endosymbiotic bacteria exist in many animals where they develop relationships that affect certain physiological processes in the host. Insects and their nematode parasites form great models for understanding the genetic and molecular basis of immune and parasitic processes. Both organisms contain endosymbionts that possess the ability to interfere with certain mechanisms of immune function and pathogenicity. This review summarizes recent information on the involvement of insect endosymbionts in the response to parasitic nematode infections, and the influence of nematode endosymbionts on specific aspects of the insect immune system. Analyzing this information will be particularly useful for devising endosymbiont-based strategies to intervene in insect immunity or nematode parasitism for the efficient management of noxious insects in the field.

The lipopolysaccharide core oligosaccharide of Burkholderia plays a critical role in maintaining a proper gut symbiosis with the bean bug Riptortus pedestris

Lipopolysaccharide, the outer cell-wall component of Gram-negative bacteria, has been shown to be important for symbiotic associations. We recently reported that the lipopolysaccharide O-antigen of Burkholderia enhances the initial colonization of the midgut of the bean bug, Riptortus pedestris However, the midgut-colonizing Burkholderia symbionts lack the O-antigen but display the core oligosaccharide on the cell surface. In this study, we investigated the role of the core oligosaccharide, which directly interacts with the host midgut, in the Riptortus-Burkholderia symbiosis. To this end, we generated the core oligosaccharide mutant strains, ΔwabS, ΔwabO, ΔwaaF, and ΔwaaC, and determined the chemical structures of their oligosaccharides, which exhibited different compositions. The symbiotic properties of these mutant strains were compared with those of the wild-type and O-antigen-deficient ΔwbiG strains. Upon introduction into Riptortus via the oral route, the core oligosaccharide mutant strains exhibited different rates of colonization of the insect midgut. The symbiont titers in fifth-instar insects revealed significantly reduced population sizes of the inner core oligosaccharide mutant strains ΔwaaF and ΔwaaC These two strains also negatively affected host growth rate and fitness. Furthermore, R. pedestris individuals colonized with the ΔwaaF and ΔwaaC strains were vulnerable to septic bacterial challenge, similar to insects without a Burkholderia symbiont. Taken together, these results suggest that the core oligosaccharide from Burkholderia symbionts plays a critical role in maintaining a proper symbiont population and in supporting the beneficial effects of the symbiont on its host in the Riptortus-Burkholderia symbiosis.

Toward a better understanding of the mechanisms of symbiosis: a comprehensive proteome map of a nascent insect symbiont

Symbiotic bacteria are common in insects and can affect various aspects of their hosts’ biology. Although the effects of insect symbionts have been clarified for various insect symbiosis models, due to the difficulty of cultivating them in vitro, there is still limited knowledge available on the molecular features that drive symbiosis. Serratia symbiotica is one of the most common symbionts found in aphids. The recent findings of free-living strains that are considered as nascent partners of aphids provide the opportunity to examine the molecular mechanisms that a symbiont can deploy at the early stages of the symbiosis (i.e., symbiotic factors). In this work, a proteomic approach was used to establish a comprehensive proteome map of the free-living S. symbiotica strain CWBI-2.3^T. Most of the 720 proteins identified are related to housekeeping or primary metabolism. Of these, 76 were identified as candidate proteins possibly promoting host colonization. Our results provide strong evidence that S. symbiotica CWBI-2.3^T is well-armed for invading insect host tissues, and suggest that certain molecular features usually harbored by pathogenic bacteria are no longer present. This comprehensive proteome map provides a series of candidate genes for further studies to understand the molecular cross-talk between insects and symbiotic bacteria.

Emerging Sponge Models of Animal-Microbe Symbioses

Sponges have a significant impact on marine benthic communities, they are of biotechnological interest owing to their production of bioactive natural compounds, and they promise to provide insights into conserved mechanisms of host–microbe interactions in basal metazoans. The natural variability of sponge-microbe associations across species and environments provides a meaningful ecological and evolutionary framework to investigate animal-microbial symbiosis through experimentation in the field and also in aquaria. In addition, next-generation sequencing technologies have shed light on the genomic repertoire of the sponge host and revealed metabolic capacities and symbiotic lifestyle features of their microbiota. However, our understanding of symbiotic mechanisms is still in its infancy. Here, we discuss the potential and limitations of the sponge-microbe symbiosis as emerging models for animal-associated microbiota.

Impact and Influence of the Natural Vibrio-Squid Symbiosis in Understanding Bacterial-Animal Interactions

Animals are colonized by bacteria, and in many cases partners have co-evolved to perform mutually beneficial functions. An exciting and ongoing legacy of the past decade has been an expansion of technology to enable study of natural associations in situ/in vivo. As a result, more symbioses are being examined, and additional details are being revealed for well-studied systems with a focus on the interactions between partners in the native context. With this framing, we review recent literature from the Vibrio fischeri-Euprymna scolopes symbiosis and focus on key studies that have had an impact on understanding bacteria-animal interactions broadly. This is not intended to be a comprehensive review of the system, but rather to focus on particular studies that have excelled at moving from pattern to process in facilitating an understanding of the molecular basis to intriguing observations in the field of host-microbe interactions. In this review we discuss the following topics: processes regulating strain and species specificity; bacterial signaling to host morphogenesis; multiple roles for nitric oxide; flagellar motility and chemotaxis; and efforts to understand unannotated and poorly annotated genes. Overall these studies demonstrate how functional approaches in vivo in a tractable system have provided valuable insight into general principles of microbe-host interactions.

Host Matters: Medicinal Leech Digestive-Tract Symbionts and Their Pathogenic Potential

Digestive-tract microbiota exert tremendous influence over host health. Host-symbiont model systems are studied to investigate how symbioses are initiated and maintained, as well as to identify host processes affected by resident microbiota. The medicinal leech, Hirudo verbana, is an excellent model to address such questions owing to a microbiome that is consistently dominated by two species, Aeromonas veronii and Mucinivorans hirudinis, both of which are cultivable and have sequenced genomes. This review outlines current knowledge about the dynamics of the H. verbana microbiome. We discuss in depth the factors required for A. veronii colonization and proliferation in the leech crop and summarize the current understanding of interactions between A. veronii and its annelid host. Lastly, we discuss leech usage in modern medicine and highlight how leech-therapy associated infections, often attributable to Aeromonas spp., are of growing clinical concern due in part to an increased prevalence of fluoroquinolone resistant strains.

Niche-Specific Impact of a Symbiotic Function on the Persistence of Microbial Symbionts within a Natural Host

How the function of microbial symbionts is affected by their population/consortium structure within a host remains poorly understood. The symbiosis established between Euprymna scolopes and Vibrio fischeri is a well-characterized host-microbe association in which the function and structure of V. fischeri populations within the host are known: V. fischeri populations produce bioluminescence from distinct crypt spaces within a dedicated host structure called the light organ. Previous studies have revealed that luminescence is required for V. fischeri populations to persist within the light organ and that deletion of the lux gene locus, which is responsible for luminescence in V. fischeri, leads to a persistence defect. In this study, we investigated the impact of bioluminescence on V. fischeri population structure within the light organ. We report that the persistence defect is specific to crypt I, which is the most developmentally mature crypt space within the nascent light organ. This result provides insight into the structure/function relationship that will be useful for future mechanistic studies of squid-Vibrio symbiosis. In addition, our report highlights the potential impact of the host developmental program on the spatiotemporal dynamics of host-microbe interactions.

IMPORTANCE

Metazoan development and physiology depend on microbes. The relationship between the symbiotic function of microbes and their spatial structure within the host environment remains poorly understood. Here we demonstrate, using a binary symbiosis, that the host requirement for the symbiotic function of the microbial symbiont is restricted to a specific host environment. Our results also suggest a link between microbial function and host development that may be a fundamental aspect of the more complex host-microbe interactions.

Experimental Evolution as an Underutilized Tool for Studying Beneficial Animal-Microbe Interactions

Microorganisms play a significant role in the evolution and functioning of the eukaryotes with which they interact. Much of our understanding of beneficial host–microbe interactions stems from studying already established associations; we often infer the genotypic and environmental conditions that led to the existing host–microbe relationships. However, several outstanding questions remain, including understanding how host and microbial (internal) traits, and ecological and evolutionary (external) processes, influence the origin of beneficial host–microbe associations. Experimental evolution has helped address a range of evolutionary and ecological questions across different model systems; however, it has been greatly underutilized as a tool to study beneficial host–microbe associations. In this review, we suggest ways in which experimental evolution can further our understanding of the proximate and ultimate mechanisms shaping mutualistic interactions between eukaryotic hosts and microbes. By tracking beneficial interactions under defined conditions or evolving novel associations among hosts and microbes with little prior evolutionary interaction, we can link specific genotypes to phenotypes that can be directly measured. Moreover, this approach will help address existing puzzles in beneficial symbiosis research: how symbioses evolve, how symbioses are maintained, and how both host and microbe influence their partner’s evolutionary trajectories. By bridging theoretical predictions and empirical tests, experimental evolution provides us with another approach to test hypotheses regarding the evolution of beneficial host–microbe associations.

Rotation of Vibrio fischeri Flagella Produces Outer Membrane Vesicles That Induce Host Development

Using the squid-vibrio association, we aimed to characterize the mechanism through which Vibrio fischeri cells signal morphogenesis of the symbiotic light-emitting organ. The symbiont releases two cell envelope molecules, peptidoglycan (PG) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) that, within 12 h of light organ colonization, act in synergy to trigger normal tissue development. Recent work has shown that outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) produced by V. fischeri are sufficient to induce PG-dependent morphogenesis; however, the mechanism(s) of OMV release by these bacteria has not been described. Like several genera of both beneficial and pathogenic bacteria, V. fischeri cells elaborate polar flagella that are enclosed by an extension of the outer membrane, whose function remains unclear. Here, we present evidence that along with the well-recognized phenomenon of blebbing from the cell's surface, rotation of this sheathed flagellum also results in the release of OMVs. In addition, we demonstrate that most of the development-inducing LPS is associated with these OMVs and that the presence of the outer membrane protein OmpU but not the LPS O antigen on these OMVs is important in triggering normal host development. These results also present insights into a possible new mechanism of LPS release by pathogens with sheathed flagella.

IMPORTANCE

Determining the function(s) of sheathed flagella in bacteria has been challenging, because no known mutation results only in the loss of this outer membrane-derived casing. Nevertheless, the presence of a sheathed flagellum in such host-associated genera as Vibrio, Helicobacter, and Brucella has led to several proposed functions, including physical protection of the flagella and masking of their immunogenic flagellins. Using the squid-vibrio light organ symbiosis, we demonstrate another role, that of V. fischeri cells require rotating flagella to induce apoptotic cell death within surface epithelium, which is a normal step in the organ's development. Further, we present evidence that this rotation releases apoptosis-triggering lipopolysaccharide in the form of outer membrane vesicles. Such release may also occur by pathogens but with different outcomes for the host.

A transcriptomic insight into the infective juvenile stage of the insect parasitic nematode, Heterorhabditis indica

Background

Nematodes are the most numerous animals in the soil. Insect parasitic nematodes of the genus Heterorhabditis are capable of selectively seeking, infecting and killing their insect-hosts in the soil. The infective juvenile (IJ) stage of the Heterorhabditis nematodes is analogous to Caenorhabditis elegans dauer juvenile stage, which remains in ‘arrested development’ till it finds and infects a new insect-host in the soil. H. indica is the most prevalent species of Heterorhabditis in India. To understand the genes and molecular processes that govern the biology of the IJ stage, and to create a resource to facilitate functional genomics and genetic exploration, we sequenced the transcriptome of H. indica IJs.

Results

The de-novo sequence assembly using Velvet-Oases pipeline resulted in 13,593 unique transcripts at N50 of 1,371 bp, of which 53 % were annotated by blastx. H. indica transcripts showed higher orthology with parasitic nematodes as compared to free living nematodes. In-silico expression analysis showed 30 % of transcripts expressing with ≥100 FPKM value. All the four canonical dauer formation pathways like cGMP-PKG, insulin, dafachronic acid and TGF-β were active in the IJ stage. Several other signaling pathways were highly represented in the transcriptome. Twenty-four orthologs of C. elegans RNAi pathway effector genes were discovered in H. indica, including nrde-3 that is reported for the first time in any of the parasitic nematodes. An ortholog of C. elegans tol-1 was also identified. Further, 272 kinases belonging to 137 groups, and several previously unidentified members of important gene classes were identified.

Conclusions

We generated high-quality transcriptome sequence data from H. indica IJs for the first time. The transcripts showed high similarity with the parasitic nematodes, M. hapla, and A. suum as opposed to C. elegans, a species to which H. indica is more closely related. The high representation of transcripts from several signaling pathways in the IJs indicates that despite being a developmentally arrested stage; IJs are a hotbed of signaling and are actively interacting with their environment.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2510-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Characterization of the Core and Caste-Specific Microbiota in the Termite, Reticulitermes flavipes

The hindgut of the termite Reticulitermes flavipes harbors a complex symbiotic community consisting of protists, bacteria, and archaea. These symbionts aid in the digestion of lignocellulose from the termite’s wood meal. Termite hindguts were sampled and the V4 hyper-variable region of the 16S rRNA gene was sequenced and analyzed from individual termites. The core microbiota of worker termites consisted of 69 OTUs at the 97% identity level, grouped into 16 taxa, and together accounted for 67.05% of the sequences from the bacterial community. The core was dominated by Treponema, which contained 36 different OTUs and accounted for ∼32% of the sequences, which suggests Treponema sp. have an important impact on the overall physiology in the hindgut. Bray–Curtis beta diversity metrics showed that hindgut samples from termites of the same colony were more similar to each other than to samples from other colonies despite possessing a core that accounted for the majority of the sequences. The specific tasks and dietary differences of the termite castes could have an effect on the composition of the microbial community. The hindgut microbiota of termites from the alate castes differed from the worker caste with significantly lower abundances of Treponema and Endomicrobia, which dominated the hindgut microbiota in workers and soldiers. Protist abundances were also quantified in the same samples using qPCR of the 18S rRNA gene. Parabasalia abundances dropped significantly in the winged alates and the Oxymonadida abundances dropped in both alate castes. These data suggest that the changes in diet or overall host physiology affected the protist and bacterial populations in the hindgut. The in-depth bacterial characterization and protist quantification in this study sheds light on the potential community dynamics within the R. flavipes hindgut and identified a large and complex core microbiota in termites obtained from multiple colonies and castes.

Comparative Analysis of Xenorhabdus koppenhoeferi Gene Expression during Symbiotic Persistence in the Host Nematode

Species of Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus bacteria form mutualistic associations with Steinernema and Heterorhabditis nematodes, respectively and serve as model systems for studying microbe-animal symbioses. Here, we profiled gene expression of Xenorhabdus koppenhoeferi during their symbiotic persistence in the newly formed infective juveniles of the host nematode Steinernema scarabaei through the selective capture of transcribed sequences (SCOTS). The obtained gene expression profile was then compared with other nematode-bacteria partnerships represented by Steinernema carpocapsae-Xenorhabdus nematophila and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora-Photorhabdus temperata. A total of 29 distinct genes were identified to be up-regulated and 53 were down-regulated in X. koppenhoeferi while in S. scarabaei infective juveniles. Of the identified genes, 8 of the up-regulated and 14 of the down-regulated genes were similarly expressed in X. nematophila during persistence in its host nematode S. carpocapsae. However, only one from each of these up- and down-regulated genes was common to the mutualistic partnership between the bacterium P. temperata and the nematode H. bacteriophora. Interactive network analysis of the shared genes between X. koppenhoeferi and X. nematophila demonstrated that the up-regulated genes were mainly involved in bacterial survival and the down-regulated genes were more related to bacterial virulence and active growth. Disruption of two selected genes pta (coding phosphotransacetylase) and acnB (coding aconitate hydratase) in X. nematophila with shared expression signature with X. koppenhoeferi confirmed that these genes are important for bacterial persistence in the nematode host. The results of our comparative analyses show that the two Xenorhabdus species share a little more than a quarter of the transcriptional mechanisms during persistence in their nematode hosts but these features are quite different from those used by P. temperata bacteria in their nematode host H. bacteriophora.

Manipulation of the quorum sensing signal AI-2 affects the antibiotic-treated gut microbiota

The mammalian gut microbiota harbors a diverse ecosystem where hundreds of bacterial species interact with each other and their host. Given that bacteria use signals to communicate and regulate group behaviors (quorum sensing), we asked whether such communication between different commensal species can influence the interactions occurring in this environment. We engineered the enteric bacterium, Escherichia coli, to manipulate the levels of the interspecies quorum sensing signal, autoinducer-2 (AI-2), in the mouse intestine and investigated the effect upon antibiotic-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis. E. coli that increased intestinal AI-2 levels altered the composition of the antibiotic-treated gut microbiota, favoring the expansion of the Firmicutes phylum. This significantly increased the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, to oppose the strong effect of the antibiotic, which had almost cleared the Firmicutes. This demonstrates that AI-2 levels influence the abundance of the major phyla of the gut microbiota, the balance of which is known to influence human health.

Was the evolutionary road towards adaptive immunity paved with endothelium?

BACKGROUND

The characterization of a completely novel adaptive immune system (AIS) in jawless vertebrates (hagfish and lampreys) presents an excellent opportunity for exploring similarities and differences in design principles. It also highlights a somewhat neglected question: Why did vertebrates, representing only 5 % of all animals, evolve a system as complex as an AIS twice, whereas invertebrates failed to do so? A number of theories have been presented in answer to this question. However, these theories either fail to explain why invertebrates would not similarly develop an AIS and are confounded by issues of causality, or have been challenged by more recent findings.

PRESENTATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS

Instead of identifying a selective pressure that would drive the development of an AIS, we hypothesise that invertebrates failed to develop an AIS because of the evolutionary constraints imposed by these animals' physiological context. In particular, we argue that a number of vascular innovations in vertebrates allowed the effective implementation of an AIS. A lower blood volume allowed for a higher antibody titer (i.e., less 'diluted' antibody concentration), rendering these immune effectors more cost-effective. In addition, both a high circulatory velocity and the ability of endothelium to coordinate immune cell trafficking promote 'epitope sampling'. Collectively, these innovations allowed the effective implementation of AIS in vertebrates.

TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

The hypothesis posits that a number of innovations to the vascular system provided the release from constraints which allowed the implementation of an AIS. However, this hypothesis would be refuted by phylogenetic analysis demonstrating that the AIS preceded these vascular innovations. The hypothesis also suggests that vascular performance would have an impact on the efficacy of an AIS, thus predicting a correlation between the vascular parameters of a species and its relative investment in AIS. The contribution of certain vascular innovations in augmenting immune functionality of an AIS can be tested by modelling the effect of different vascular parameters on AIS efficacy.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE HYPOTHESIS

The hypothesis not only explains the immunological dimorphism between vertebrates and invertebrates but also brings to attention the fact that immunity is dependent on more than just an immune system.

Bacterial cell motility of Burkholderia gut symbiont is required to colonize the insect gut

We generated a Burkholderia mutant, which is deficient of an N-acetylmuramyl-l-alanine amidase, AmiC, involved in peptidoglycan degradation. When non-motile ΔamiC mutant Burkholderia cells harboring chain form were orally administered to Riptortus insects, ΔamiC mutant cells were unable to establish symbiotic association. But, ΔamiC mutant complemented with amiC gene restored in vivo symbiotic association. ΔamiC mutant cultured in minimal medium restored their motility with single-celled morphology. When ΔamiC mutant cells harboring single-celled morphology were administered to the host insect, this mutant established normal symbiotic association, suggesting that bacterial motility is essential for the successful symbiosis between host insect and Burkholderia symbiont.

Do oral bacteria alter the regenerative potential of stem cells? A concise review

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are widely recognized as critical players in tissue regeneration. New insights into stem cell biology provide evidence that MSCs may also contribute to host defence and inflammation. In case of tissue injury or inflammatory diseases, e.g. periodontitis, stem cells are mobilized towards the site of damage, thus coming in close proximity to bacteria and bacterial components. Specifically, in the oral cavity, complex ecosystems of commensal bacteria live in a mutually beneficial state with the host. However, the formation of polymicrobial biofilm communities with pathogenic properties may trigger an inadequate host inflammatory-immune response, leading to the disruption of tissue homoeostasis and development of disease. Because of their unique characteristics, MSCs are suggested as crucial regulators of tissue regeneration even under such harsh environmental conditions. The heterogeneous effects of bacteria on MSCs across studies imply the complexity underlying the interactions between stem cells and bacteria. Hence, a better understanding of stem cell behaviour at sites of inflammation appears to be a key strategy in developing new approaches for in situ tissue regeneration. Here, we review the literature on the effects of oral bacteria on cell proliferation, differentiation capacity and immunomodulation of dental-derived MSCs.

Giving microbes their due – animal life in a microbially dominant world

The new technology of next-generation sequencing is changing our perceptions of the form and function of the biological world. The emerging data reveal an array of microbes that is more vast and more central to all biological processes than previously appreciated. Further, evidence is accumulating that the alliances of microbes with one another and with constituents of the macrobiological world are critical for the health of the biosphere. This contribution summarizes the basic arguments as to why, when considering the biochemical adaptations of animals, we should integrate the roles of their microbial partners.