The domain structure of the ion channel-forming protein colicin Ia

Antimicrobial peptides against colorectal cancer-a focused review

Despite recent advances in the treatment of colorectal cancer (CRC), low patient survival rate due to emergence of drug resistant cancer cells, metastasis and multiple deleterious side effects of chemotherapy, is a cause of public concern globally. To negate these clinical conundrums, search for effective and harmless novel molecular entities for the treatment of CRC is an urgent necessity. Since antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are part of innate immunity of living beings, it is quite imperative to look for essential attributes of these peptides which may contribute to their effectiveness against carcinogenesis. Once identified, those characteristics can be suitably modified using several synthetic and computational techniques to further enhance their selectivity and pharmacokinetic profiles. Hence, this review analyses scientific reports describing the antiproliferative action of AMPs derived from several sources, particularly focusing on various colon cancer in vitro/in vivo investigations. On perusal of the literature, it appears that AMPs based therapeutics would definitely find special place in CRC therapy in future either alone or as an adjunct to chemotherapy provided some necessary alterations are made in their natural structures to make them more compatible with modern clinical practice. In this context, further in-depth research is warranted in adequate in vivo models.

X-ray crystallography shines a light on pore-forming toxins

A common form of cellular attack by pathogenic bacteria is to secrete pore-forming toxins (PFTs). Capable of forming transmembrane pores in various biological membranes, PFTs have also been identified in a diverse range of other organisms such as sea anemones, earthworms and even mushrooms and trees. The mechanism of pore formation by PFTs is associated with substantial conformational changes in going from the water-soluble to transmembrane states of the protein. The determination of the crystal structures for numerous PFTs has shed much light on our understanding of these proteins. Other than elucidating the atomic structural details of PFTs and the conformational changes that must occur for pore formation, crystal structures have revealed structural homology that has led to the discovery of new PFTs and new PFT families. Here we review some key crystallographic results together with complimentary approaches for studying PFTs. We discuss how these studies have impacted our understanding of PFT function and guided research into biotechnical applications.

The structures of coiled-coil domains from type III secretion system translocators reveal homology to pore-forming toxins

Many pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria utilize type III secretion systems (T3SSs) to alter the normal functions of target cells. Shigella flexneri uses its T3SS to invade human intestinal cells to cause bacillary dysentery (shigellosis) that is responsible for over one million deaths per year. The Shigella type III secretion apparatus is composed of a basal body spanning both bacterial membranes and an exposed oligomeric needle. Host altering effectors are secreted through this energized unidirectional conduit to promote bacterial invasion. The active needle tip complex of S. flexneri is composed of a tip protein, IpaD, and two pore-forming translocators, IpaB and IpaC. While the atomic structure of IpaD has been elucidated and studied, structural data on the hydrophobic translocators from the T3SS family remain elusive. We present here the crystal structures of a protease-stable fragment identified within the N-terminal regions of IpaB from S. flexneri and SipB from Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium determined at 2.1 Å and 2.8 Å limiting resolution, respectively. These newly identified domains are composed of extended-length (114 Å in IpaB and 71 Å in SipB) coiled-coil motifs that display a high degree of structural homology to one another despite the fact that they share only 21% sequence identity. Further structural comparisons also reveal substantial similarity to the coiled-coil regions of pore-forming proteins from other Gram-negative pathogens, notably, colicin Ia. This suggests that these mechanistically separate and functionally distinct membrane-targeting proteins may have diverged from a common ancestor during the course of pathogen-specific evolutionary events.

Microbially-produced peptides having potential application to the prevention of dental caries

Strategies advanced to decrease the occurrence of dental caries have in the past typically focussed upon attempting to reduce plaque accumulation by application of broad-spectrum antibacterial agents. In recent years however there has been growing interest in the application of a more targeted approach to the selective elimination from plaque of those bacterial species that are specifically implicated as the aetiological agents of this disease. This review focuses upon a number of the small bacterially-produced peptide antibiotics known as bacteriocins that are currently being explored for their potential role in the treatment and prevention of dental caries.

Pore formation: an ancient yet complex form of attack

Bacteria, as well as higher organisms such as sea anemones or earthworms, have developed sophisticated virulence factors such as the pore-forming toxins (PFTs) to mount their attack against the host. One of the most fascinating aspects of PFTs is that they can adopt a water-soluble form at the beginning of their lifetime and become an integral transmembrane protein in the membrane of the target cells. There is a growing understanding of the sequence of events and the various conformational changes undergone by these toxins in order to bind to the host cell surface, to penetrate the cell membranes and to achieve pore formation. These points will be addressed in this review.

Peptide design and structural characterization of a GPCR loop mimetic

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) control fundamental aspects of human physiology and behaviors. Knowledge of their structures, especially for the loop regions, is limited and has principally been obtained from homology models, mutagenesis data, low resolution structural studies, and high resolution studies of peptide models of receptor segments. We developed an alternate methodology for structurally characterizing GPCR loops, using the human S1P(4) first extracellular loop (E1) as a model system. This methodology uses computational peptide designs based on transmembrane domain (TM) model structures in combination with CD and NMR spectroscopy. The characterized peptides contain segments that mimic the self-assembling extracellular ends of TM 2 and TM 3 separated by E1, including residues R3.28(121) and E3.29(122) that are required for sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) binding and receptor activation in the S1P(4) receptor. The S1P(4) loop mimetic peptide interacted specifically with an S1P headgroup analog, O-phosphoethanolamine (PEA), as evidenced by PEA-induced perturbation of disulfide cross-linked coiled-coil first extracellular loop mimetic (CCE1a) (1)H and (15)N backbone amide chemical shifts. CCE1a was capable of weakly binding PEA near biologically relevant residues R29 and E30, which correspond to R3.28 and E3.29 in the full-length S1P(4) receptor, confirming that it has adopted a biologically relevant conformation. We propose that the combination of coiled-coil TM replacement and conformational stabilization with an interhelical disulfide bond is a general design strategy that promotes native-like structure for loops derived from GPCRs.

Colicin biology

Colicins are proteins produced by and toxic for some strains of Escherichia coli. They are produced by strains of E. coli carrying a colicinogenic plasmid that bears the genetic determinants for colicin synthesis, immunity, and release. Insights gained into each fundamental aspect of their biology are presented: their synthesis, which is under SOS regulation; their release into the extracellular medium, which involves the colicin lysis protein; and their uptake mechanisms and modes of action. Colicins are organized into three domains, each one involved in a different step of the process of killing sensitive bacteria. The structures of some colicins are known at the atomic level and are discussed. Colicins exert their lethal action by first binding to specific receptors, which are outer membrane proteins used for the entry of specific nutrients. They are then translocated through the outer membrane and transit through the periplasm by either the Tol or the TonB system. The components of each system are known, and their implication in the functioning of the system is described. Colicins then reach their lethal target and act either by forming a voltage-dependent channel into the inner membrane or by using their endonuclease activity on DNA, rRNA, or tRNA. The mechanisms of inhibition by specific and cognate immunity proteins are presented. Finally, the use of colicins as laboratory or biotechnological tools and their mode of evolution are discussed.

Pore-forming protein toxins: from structure to function

Pore-forming protein toxins (PFTs) are one of Nature's most potent biological weapons. An essential feature of their toxicity is the remarkable property that PFTs can exist either in a stable water-soluble state or as an integral membrane pore. In order to convert from the water-soluble to the membrane state, the toxin must undergo large conformational changes. There are now more than a dozen PFTs for which crystal structures have been determined and the nature of the conformational changes they must undergo is beginning to be understood. Although they differ markedly in their primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures, nearly all can be classified into one of two families based on the types of pores they are thought to form: alpha-PFTs or beta-PFTs. Recent work suggests a number of common features in the mechanism of membrane insertion may exist for each class.

Deuterium solid-state NMR investigations of exchange labeled oriented purple membranes at different hydration levels

Oriented purple membranes were equilibrated under controlled (2)H(2)O relative humidity ranging from 15% to 93% and introduced into the magnetic field of an NMR spectrometer with the membrane normal parallel to the magnetic field direction. Deuterium solid-state NMR spectra of these samples resolved four deuteron populations. Deuterons that have exchanged with amide protons of the protein exhibited a broad spectral line shape (<150 kHz). Furthermore, a broadened signal of deuterons tightly associated with protein and lipid is detected at low hydration, as well as two additional water populations that were present when the samples were equilibrated at >/=75% relative humidity. These latter ones are characterized by narrow quadrupolar splittings (<2.5 kHz) and orientation-dependent chemical shifts. Their deuterium relaxation times, measured as a function of temperature, indicate correlation times in the fast regime (10(-10) s) and activation energies of 13 kJ/mol (at 86% relative humidity). Differences in T(1) and T(2) relaxation together with small residual quadrupole splittings show that the mobility of the deuterons is anisotropic. The occurrence of these mobile water populations at high levels of purple membrane hydration (>/=75% relative humidity) correlate with proton pumping activity of bacteriorhodopsin, the fast kinetics of M-decay in the bacteriorhodopsin photocycle, and structural alterations of the protein during the M-state, which have been described previously.

Interaction with a lipid membrane: a key step in bacterial toxins virulence

Bacterial toxins are secreted as soluble proteins. However, they have to interact with a cell lipid membrane either to permeabilize the cells (pore forming toxins) or to enter into the cytosol to express their enzymatic activity (translocation toxins). The aim of this review is to suggest that the strategies developed by toxins to insert in a lipid membrane is mediated by their structure. Two categories, which contains both pore forming and translocation toxins, are emerging: alpha helical proteins containing hydrophobic domains and beta sheets proteins in which no hydrophobicity can be clearly detected. The first category would rather interact with the membrane through multi-spanning helical domains whereas the second category would form a beta barrel in the membrane.

Influence of the membrane potential on the free energy of an intrinsic protein

A modified Poisson-Boltzmann equation is developed from statistical mechanical considerations to describe the influence of the transmembrane potential on macromolecular systems. Using a Green's function formalism, the electrostatic free energy of a protein associated with the membrane is expressed as the sum of three terms: a contribution from the energy required to charge the system's capacitance, a contribution corresponding to the interaction of the protein charges with the membrane potential, and a contribution corresponding to a voltage-independent reaction field free energy. The membrane potential, which is due to the polarization interface, is calculated in the absence of the protein charges, whereas the reaction field is calculated in the absence of transmembrane potential. Variations in the capacitive energy associated with typical molecular processes are negligible under physiological conditions. The formulation of the theory is closely related to standard algorithms used to solve the Poisson-Boltzmann equation and only small modifications to current source codes are required for its implementation. The theory is illustrated by examining the voltage-dependent membrane insertion of a simple polyalanine alpha-helix and by computing the electrostatic potential across a 60-A-diameter sphere meant to represent a large intrinsic protein.

Membrane insertion: The strategies of toxins (review)

Protein toxins are soluble molecules secreted by pathogenic bacteria which act at the plasma membrane or in the cytoplasm of target cells. They must therefore interact with a membrane at some point, either to modify its permeability properties or to reach the cytoplasm. As a consequence, toxins have the built-in capacity to adopt two generally incompatible states: water-soluble and transmembrane. Irrespective of their origin or function, the membrane interacting domain of most protein toxins seems to have adopted one out of two structural strategies to be able to undergo this metamorphosis. In the first group of toxins the membrane interacting domain has the structural characteristics of most known membrane proteins, i.e. it contains hydrophobic and amphipathic alpha-helices long enough to span a membrane. To render this 'membrane protein' water-soluble during the initial part of its life the hydrophobic helices are sheltered from the solvent by a barrel of amphipathic helices. In the second group of toxins the opposite strategy is adopted. The toxin is an intrinsically soluble protein and is composed mainly of beta-structure. These toxins manage to become membrane proteins by oligomerizing in order to combine amphipathic beta-sheet to generate sufficient hydrophobicity for membrane insertion to occur. Toxins from this latter group are thought to perforate the lipid bilayer as a beta-barrel such as has been described for bacterial porins, and has recently been shown for staphylococcal alpha-toxin. The two groups of toxins will be described in detail through the presentation of examples. Particular attention will be given to the beta-structure toxins, since four new structures have been solved over the past year: the staphyloccocal alpha-toxin channel, the anthrax protective antigen protoxin, the anthrax protective antigen-soluble heptamer and the CytB protoxin. Structural similarities with mammalian proteins implicated in the immune response and apoptosis will be discussed. Peptide toxins will not be covered in this review.

A mechanism for toxin insertion into membranes is suggested by the crystal structure of the channel-forming domain of colicin E1

BACKGROUND

Channel-forming colicins, including colicin E1, are a sub-family of bacteriocins. The toxic action of colicin E1 is derived from its ability to form a voltage-gated channel, which causes depolarization of the cytoplasmic membrane of sensitive Escherichia coli cells. In this process, the toxin-like colicin E1 molecule must undergo a substantial structural transition from a soluble state, in which it binds the target cell, to a membrane-bound state. Details of the structural changes that accompany this conversion may be directly applicable to other channel-forming toxins, as well as to the mechanism by which proteins insert into or cross membranes.

RESULTS

The structure of the 190-residue channel-forming domain of colicin E1 in its soluble form has been solved at 2.5 A resolution. This structure contains 10alpha helices arranged in three layers (A-C) with a central hydrophobic helical hairpin in layer B, which is proposed to anchor the membrane-bound form in the bilayer. The extended N-terminal helix I provides a connection to the rest of the colicin E1 molecule, and the loop I-II may act as a hinge for re-orientation of the domain for membrane binding. A set of conserved positively charged residues on layer C may provide the docking surface on the molecule for membrane attachment. A large internal cavity between layers B and C may allow these layers to disengage, suggesting a mechanism for unfolding the molecule on the membrane that involves the perturbation of the interhelical hydrophobic interactions in layer C.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of the structure of the colicin E1 channel-forming domain, its comparison with the structure of the colicin A domain and the known requirement for initial electrostatic and subsequent hydrophobic interactions, molecular details of the docking, unfolding and insertion of the channel-forming domain into the membrane are proposed. The model for docking and initial interaction with the membrane positions the hydrophobic hairpin 'anchor' approximately parallel to the membrane surface. Hydrophobic interactions in the docking layer may then be displaced by interactions with the membrane, spreading the helices on the surface and exposing the hydrophobic hairpin for insertion into the membrane.

Crystal structure of colicin Ia

The ion-channel forming colicins A, B, E1, Ia, Ib and N all kill bacterial cells selectively by co-opting bacterial active-transport pathways and forming voltage-gated ion conducting channels across the plasma membrane of the target bacterium. The crystal structure of colicin Ia reveals a molecule 210 A long with three distinct functional domains arranged along a backbone of two extraordinarily long alpha-helices. A central domain at the bend of the hairpin-like structure mediates specific recognition and binding to an outer-membrane receptor. A second domain mediates translocation across the outer membrane via the TonB transport pathway; the TonB-box recognition element of colicin Ia is on one side of three 80 A-long helices arranged as a helical sheet. A third domain is made up of 10 alpha-helices which form a voltage-activated and voltage-gated ion conducting channel across the plasma membrane of the target cell. The two 160 A-long alpha-helices that link the receptor-binding domain to the other domains enable the colicin Ia molecule to span the periplasmic space and contact both the outer and plasma membranes simultaneously during function.

Membrane topology of the colicin A pore-forming domain analyzed by disulfide bond engineering

Four colicin A double-cysteine mutants possessing a disulfide bond in their pore-forming domain were constructed to study the translocation and the pore formation of colicin A. The disulfide bonds connected alpha-helices 1 and 2, 2 and 10, 3 and 9, or 3 and 10 of the pore-forming domain. The disulfide bonds did not prevent the colicin A translocation through the Escherichia coli envelope. However, the mutated colicins were able to exert their in vivo channel activity only after reduction of their disulfide bonds. In vitro studies with brominated phospholipid vesicles and planar lipid bilayers revealed that the disulfide bond that connects the alpha-helices 2 and 10 prevented the colicin A membrane insertion, whereas the other double-cysteine mutants inserted into lipid vesicles. The disulfide bonds that connect either the alpha-helices 1 and 2 or 3 and 10 were unable to prevent the formation of a conducting channel in presence of membrane potential. These results indicate that alpha-helices 1, 2, 3, and 10 remain at the membrane surface after application of a membrane potential.

Major transmembrane movement associated with colicin Ia channel gating

Colicin Ia, a bacterial protein toxin of 626 amino acid residues, forms voltage-dependent channels in planar lipid bilayer membranes. We have exploited the high affinity binding of streptavidin to biotin to map the topology of the channel-forming domain (roughly 175 residues of the COOH-terminal end) with respect to the membrane. That is, we have determined, for the channel's open and closed states, which parts of this domain are exposed to the aqueous solutions on either side of the membrane and which are inserted into the bilayer. This was done by biotinylating cysteine residues introduced by site-directed mutagenesis, and monitoring by electrophysiological methods the effect of streptavidin addition on channel behavior. We have identified a region of at least 68 residues that flips back and forth across the membrane in association with channel opening and closing. This identification was based on our observations that for mutants biotinylated in this region, streptavidin added to the cis (colicin-containing) compartment interfered with channel opening, and trans streptavidin interfered with channel closing. (If biotin was linked to the colicin by a disulfide bond, the effects of streptavidin on channel closing could be reversed by detaching the streptavidin-biotin complex from the colicin, using a water-soluble reducing agent. This showed that the cysteine sulfur, not just the biotin, is exposed to the trans solution). The upstream and downstream segments flanking the translocated region move into and out of the bilayer during channel opening and closing, forming two transmembrane segments. Surprisingly, if any of several residues near the upstream end of the translocated region is held on the cis side by streptavidin, the colicin still forms voltage-dependent channels, indicating that a part of the protein that normally is fully translocated across the membrane can become the upstream transmembrane segment. Evidently, the identity of the upstream transmembrane segment is not crucial to channel formation, and several open channel structures can exist.

Quantification of group A colicin import sites

Pore-forming colicins are soluble bacteriocins which form voltage-gated ion channels in the inner membrane of Escherichia coli. To reach their target, these colicins first bind to a receptor located on the outer membrane and then are translocated through the envelope. Colicins are subdivided into two groups according to the envelope proteins involved in their translocation: group A colicins use the Tol proteins; group B colicins use the proteins TonB, ExbB, and ExbD. We have previously shown that a double-cysteine colicin A mutant which possesses a disulfide bond in its pore-forming domain is translocated through the envelope but is unable to form a channel in the inner membrane (D. Duché, D. Baty, M. Chartier, and L. Letellier, J. Biol. Chem. 269:24820-24825, 1994). Measurements of colicin-induced K+ efflux reveal that preincubation of the cells with the double-cysteine mutant prevents binding of colicins of group A but not of group B. Moreover, we show that the mutant is still in contact with its receptor and import machinery when it interacts with the inner membrane. From these competition experiments, we conclude that each Escherichia coli cell contains approximately 400 and 1,000 colicin A receptors and translocation sites, respectively.

Ion channel forming colicins

Entry of proteins into membranes and transmembrane ion channel formation are two fundamental aspects of membrane biology. The ion channel forming colicins beautifully exemplify both properties. Recent results delineate the structure of a whole colicin; coupled with new biophysical studies, a mechanism for insertion is proposed.

Colicin import and pore formation: a system for studying protein transport across membranes?

Pore-forming colicins are a family of protein toxins (M(r) 40-70 kDa) produced by Escherichia coli and related bacteria. They are bactericidal by virtue of their ability to form ion channels in the inner membrane of target cells. They provide a useful means of studying questions such as toxin action, polypeptide translocation across and into membranes, voltage-gated channels and receptor function. These colicins bind to a receptor in the outer membrane before being translocated across the cell envelope with the aid of helper proteins that belong to nutrient-uptake systems and the so-called 'Tol' proteins, the function of which has not yet been properly defined. A distinct domain appears to be associated with each of three steps (receptor binding, translocation and formation of voltage-gated channels). The Tol-dependent uptake pathway is described here. The structures and interactions of TolA, B, Q and R have by now been quite clearly defined. Transmembrane alpha-helix interactions are required for the functional assembly of the E. coli Tol complex, which is preferentially located at contact sites between the inner and outer membranes. The number of colicin translocation sites is about 1000 per cell. The role and the involvement of the OmpF porin (with colicins A and N) have been described in a recent study on the structural and functional interactions of a colicin-resistant mutant of OmpF. The X-ray crystal structure of the channel-forming fragment of colicin A and that of the entire colicin la have provided the basis for biophysical and site-directed mutagenesis studies.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Multifunctional transporter models: lessons from the transport of water, sugars, and ring compounds by GLUTs

Facilitative glucose transporters (GLUTs) have recently been shown to be multifunctional, transporting substrates other than sugars, such as water and ring compounds as large as nitrobenzene-diazol-aminoglucose. Other membrane proteins, including transporters and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, have also revealed a finite permeability to water. We compare the alpha-helical and beta-barrel models for the structure of GLUTs, discuss recent evidence, and argue that a beta-barrel fold explains it better. We show a model for GLUTs consisting of a relatively rigid beta-barrel translocation unit ("channel") of diameter ample enough to allow permeation of the above substrates (approximately 20 A) but gated shut by mobile loops at both ends. Such gates would open only after aromatic interactions would lead to binding of the ring substrates for GLUTs; water would, however, traverse crevices in the closed gates. Using the insights gained from GLUTs, we propose that other transporters may share with GLUTs the motif of a beta-barrel channel and would be permeable to water due to the presence of such channels together with similarly behaving gates.

Shorting out the cellular battery

A low-resolution structure of the bacterial toxin colicin Ia provides a model for its lethal membrane association and an explanation for the anomalous behaviour of its C-terminal peptide fragment.