Inflammatory bowel disease and intestinal cancer: a paradigm of the Yin-Yang interplay between inflammation and cancer. Oncogene. 2010;29:3313-3323. [PMID: 20400974 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2010.109]

Protective effects of insoluble dietary fiber from cereal bran against DSS-induced chronic colitis in mice: From inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, intestinal barrier, and gut microbiota

Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) is a crucial component of cereals, and IDF from cereal bran (IDF-CB) has been reported to have multiple biological activities. However, the effect of IDF-CB on chronic colitis remains underexplored. The study aimed to investigate the impact of IDFs from wheat bran (WBIDF), rice bran (RBIDF), millet bran (MBIDF) and oat bran (OBIDF) on chronic colitis induced by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). Our findings demonstrated that IDFs-CB supplementation mitigated DSS-induced weight loss and reduced lesions in the colon and spleen. Levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α) and oxidative stress markers (MPO, iNOS and MDA)were decreased, and anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) and T-SOD activity were increased after IDF-CB inclusion. Furthermore, IDFs-CB restored intestinal barrier function by regulating gene expression (up-regulated Muc-2, ZO-1 and Occludin, and down-regulated Claudin-1 and Claudin-4). Additionally, we analyzed the gut microbiota and SCFAs composition. WBIDF, MBIDF and OBIDF inhibited the growth of Muribaculaceae_unclassified, Bacteroides and Parasutterella. Conversely, IDFs-CB promoted the growth of Candidatus_Saccharimonas and norank_f__norank_o__Clostridia_UCG-014. Notably, WBIDF enhanced the abundance of Allobaculum, while MBIDF and OBIDF increased the abundance of Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136. Moreover, supplementation with IDFs-CB significantly elevated certain SCFA concentrations-particularly acetic acid and isohexanoic acid. Our results suggested that IDF-CB effectively alleviated DSS-induced chronic colitis; among them，WBIDF exhibited superior efficacy followed by OBIDF，MBIDF，and RBIDF. This study provides a theoretical foundation for dietary recommendations for patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease.

Inflammatory bowel disease, colitis, and cancer: unmasking the chronic inflammation link

BACKGROUND

Chronic inflammation is a significant driver in the development of various diseases, including cancer. Colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CA-CRC) refers to the increased risk of colorectal cancer in individuals with chronic inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.

METHODS

This narrative review examines the link between chronic inflammation and CA-CRC. A comprehensive literature search was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, focusing on studies published between 2000 and 2024. Studies were selected based on relevance to the role of inflammation in CA-CRC, specifically targeting molecular pathways and clinical implications. Both clinical and mechanistic studies were reviewed.

CONCLUSION

Sustained inflammation in the colon fosters a pro-tumorigenic environment, leading to the initiation and progression of CA-CRC. Prevention strategies must focus on controlling chronic inflammation, optimizing IBD management, and implementing regular screenings. Emerging therapies targeting key inflammatory pathways and immune responses, along with microbiome modulation, hold promise for reducing CA-CRC risk. Understanding these molecular mechanisms provides a path toward personalized treatment and better outcomes for patients with IBD at risk of colorectal cancer.

Targeting cyclooxygenase-2 for chemoprevention of inflammation-associated intestinal carcinogenesis: An update

Mounting evidence from preclinical and clinical studies suggests that persistent inflammation functions as a driving force in the journey to cancer. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is a key enzyme involved in inflammatory signaling. While being transiently upregulated upon inflammatory stimuli, COX-2 has been found to be consistently overexpressed in human colorectal cancer and several other malignancies. The association between chronic inflammation and cancer has been revisited: cancer can arise when inflammation fails to resolve. Besides its proinflammatory functions, COX-2 also catalyzes the production of pro-resolving as well as anti-inflammatory metabolites from polyunsaturated fatty acids. This may account for the side effects caused by long term use of some COX-2 inhibitory drugs during the cancer chemopreventive trials. This review summarizes the latest findings highlighting the dual functions of COX-2 in the context of its implications in the development, maintenance, and progression of cancer.

SIRT1: a novel regulator in colorectal cancer

The class-III histone deacetylase SIRT1 is the most extensively investigated sirtuin deacetylase. It is resistant to the broad deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A and depends on oxidized nicotinamide adenine nucleotide (NAD+). SIRT1 plays a crucial role in the tumorigenesis of numerous types of cancers, including colorectal cancer (CRC). Accumulating evidence indicates that SIRT1 is a therapeutic target for CRC; however, the function and underlying mechanism of SIRT1 in CRC still need to be elucidated. Herein, we provide a detailed and updated review to illustrate that SIRT1 regulates many processes that go awry in CRC cells, such as apoptosis, autophagy, proliferation, migration, invasion, metastasis, oxidative stress, resistance to chemo-radio therapy, immune evasion, and metabolic reprogramming. Moreover, we closely link our review to the clinical practice of CRC treatment, summarizing the mechanisms and prospects of SIRT1 inhibitors in CRC therapy. SIRT1 inhibitors as monotherapy in CRC or in combination with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immune therapies are comprehensively discussed. From epigenetic regulation to its potential therapeutic effect, we hope to offer novel insights and a comprehensive understanding of SIRT1's role in CRC.

Computational prediction of new therapeutic effects of probiotics

Probiotics are living microorganisms that provide health benefits to their hosts, potentially aiding in the treatment or prevention of various diseases, including diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome, ulcerative colitis, and Crohn's disease. Motivated by successful applications of link prediction in medical and biological networks, we applied link prediction to the probiotic-disease network to identify unreported relations. Using data from the Probio database and International Classification of Diseases-10th Revision (ICD-10) resources, we constructed a bipartite graph focused on the relationship between probiotics and diseases. We applied customized link prediction algorithms for this bipartite network, including common neighbors, Jaccard coefficient, and Adamic/Adar ranking formulas. We evaluated the results using Area under the Curve (AUC) and precision metrics. Our analysis revealed that common neighbors outperformed the other methods, with an AUC of 0.96 and precision of 0.6, indicating that basic formulas can predict at least six out of ten probable relations correctly. To support our findings, we conducted an exact search of the top 20 predictions and found six confirming papers on Google Scholar and Science Direct. Evidence suggests that Lactobacillus jensenii may provide prophylactic and therapeutic benefits for gastrointestinal diseases and that Lactobacillus acidophilus may have potential activity against urologic and female genital illnesses. Further investigation of other predictions through additional preclinical and clinical studies is recommended. Future research may focus on deploying more powerful link prediction algorithms to achieve better and more accurate results.

Transient receptor potential melastatin 2 is involved in trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced acute and chronic colitis-associated fibrosis progression in mice

Crohn's disease, a chronic and recurrent gastrointestinal disease, frequently causes intestinal fibrosis. Transient receptor potential melastatin 2 (TRPM2), a non-selective cation channel, is activated by reactive oxygen species. This study investigated the role of TRPM2 in acute colitis and chronic colitis-associated fibrosis progression. Acute colitis and chronic colitis-associated fibrosis were induced in TRPM2-deficient (TRPM2KO) and wild-type (WT) mice through single and repeated intrarectal injections of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from WT and TRPM2KO mice were stimulated using H2O2. In WT mice, a single TNBS injection induced acute colitis with upregulated inflammatory cytokines/chemokines and Th1/Th17-related cytokines, while repeated TNBS injections induced chronic colitis-associated fibrosis with upregulation of fibrogenic factors and Th2-related cytokines. Acute colitis and chronic colitis-associated fibrosis with cytokines/chemokine upregulation and fibrogenic factors were considerably suppressed in TRPM2KO mice. Treating BMDMs with H2O2 increased cytokine/chemokine expression and JNK, ERK, and p38 phosphorylation; however, these responses were significantly less in TRPM2KO than in WT mice. These findings suggest that TRPM2 contributes to acute colitis progression via Th1/Th17-mediated immune responses. Furthermore, TRPM2 may be directly involved in colitis-associated fibrosis induction, likely due to the regulation of Th2/TGF-β1-mediated fibrogenesis in addition to a consequence of acute colitis progression.

Influence of food emulsifiers on cellular function and inflammation, a preliminary study

Emulsifiers are extensively used as food additives and their consumption is increasing in Western countries. However, so far only few studies examined their potential effects on intestinal cellular functions and gut inflammation. The aim of this preliminary analysis was to study the emulsifiers and their concentrations capable of causing cellular damage compared to extra virgin olive oil (EVOO). We tested two commonly used emulsifiers (EMI, EMII) and EVOO on Caco-2 cells, derived from a colon carcinoma and widely used as a model of the intestinal inflammation. The diphenyltetrazolium bromide test MTT and clonogenic assay were used to study the effect of emulsifiers on cell viability. Cell migration was determined by the wound-healing assay. The inflammation was studied by measuring the levels of interleukin 6 (IL-6) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1/C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2), multifunctional cytokines with a major role in the acute-phase response. Furthermore, we analyzed the effect of conditioned media of Caco-2 cells treated with EMs on macrophages activation. In conclusion, our preliminary data provide evidence that EMs increase the proliferation and migration rate of Caco-2 cells. Moreover, Caco-2 cells treated with EMs enhance the IL-6 and CCL2 release and activated macrophages, supporting their role as proinflammatory molecules.

Managing the older adult with inflammatory bowel disease: is age just a number?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review summarizes the most recent literature on older adults with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Additionally, we review geriatric syndromes that may be pertinent to the management of older adults with IBD.

RECENT FINDINGS

Traditionally chronological age has been used to risk stratify older adults with IBD, however physiologic status, including comorbidities, frailty, and sarcopenia, are more closely associated with clinical outcomes for older adults. Delaying care for and undertreating older adults with IBD based upon advanced chronologic age alone is associated with worse outcomes, including increased mortality. Treatment decisions should be made considering physiologic status, with an understanding of the differential risks associated with both ongoing disease and treatment. As such, there is an increasing recognition of the impact geriatric syndromes have on older adults with IBD, which need to be further explored.

SUMMARY

Older adults with IBD are less likely to receive advanced therapies and timely surgery. They are also more likely to have adverse outcomes despite having similar disease courses to younger adults with IBD. Focusing on biological age as opposed to chronological age can shift this trajectory and improve quality of care for this growing population of patients with IBD.

Risk of Cancer in Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Pitfalls in Oncologic Therapy

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), represented by ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, is an idiopathic condition caused by a dysregulated immune response to host intestinal microflora, leading to chronic relapsing intestinal inflammation. Individuals with IBD are more prone to die from several diseases, including cancer.

METHODS

An extensive search was conducted of PubMed using the following medical subject heading-"inflammatory bowel disease" OR "Crohn's disease" OR "ulcerative colitis" AND "cancer."

RESULTS

In this review article, we discuss the oncogenic mechanisms and genomics of colitis-associated colorectal cancer. Beyond this, we describe the multiple other malignancies that IBD patients are at risk for, discuss caveats in the screening and diagnosis of those cancers, and shed light on pitfalls on the management and treatment of cancer in IBD patients.

CONCLUSION

Patients, caregivers, and health professionals who deal with IBD must be educated on how to identify warning signs so that cancers can be diagnosed and treated as early as possible.

Nanomedicines: intervention in inflammatory pathways of cancer

Inflammation is a complex defense process that maintains tissue homeostasis. However, this complex cascade, if lasts long, may contribute to pathogenesis of several diseases. Chronic inflammation has been exhaustively studied in the last few decades, for its contribution in development and progression of cancer. The intrinsic limitations of conventional anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer therapies triggered the development of nanomedicines for more effective and safer therapies. Targeting inflammation and tumor cells by nanoparticles, encapsulated with active therapeutic agents, offers a promising outcome with patient survival. Considerable technological success has been achieved in this field through exploitation of tumor microenvironment, and recognition of molecules overexpressed on endothelial cells or macrophages, through enhanced vascular permeability, or by rendering biomimetic approach to nanoparticles. This review focusses on the inflammatory pathways in progression of a tumor, and advancement in nanotechnologies targeting these pathways. We also aim to identify the gaps that hinder the successful clinical translation of nanotherapeutics with further clinical studies that will allow oncologist to precisely identify the patients who may be benefited from nanotherapy at time when promotion or progression of tumor initiates. It is postulated that the nanomedicines, in near future, will shift the paradigm of cancer treatment and improve patient survival.

Inflammatory bowel disease increases the risk of hepatobiliary pancreatic cancer: A two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis of European and East Asian populations

BACKGROUND

Both inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and hepato-pancreato-biliary cancers (HPBC) have been established to cause a huge socioeconomic burden. Epidemiological studies have revealed a close association between IBD and HPBC.

METHODS

Herein, we utilized inverse-variance weighting to conduct a two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis. We sought to investigate the link between various subtypes of IBD and HPBC. To ensure the accuracy and consistency of our findings, we conducted heterogeneity tests, gene pleiotropy tests, and sensitivity analyses.

RESULTS

Compared to the general population, IBD patients in Europe exhibited a 1.22-fold increased incidence of pancreatic cancer (PC) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 1.0022-1.4888 (p = 0.0475). We also found a 1.14-fold increased incidence of PC in Crohn's disease (CD) patients with (95% CI: 1.0017-1.3073, p = 0.0472). In the East Asian population, the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) was 1.28-fold higher (95% CI = 1.0709-1.5244, p = 0.0065) in IBD patients than in the general population. Additionally, ulcerative colitis (UC) patients displayed 1.12-fold (95% CI: 1.1466-1.3334, p < 0.0001) and 1.31-fold (95% CI: 1.0983-1.5641, p = 0.0027) increased incidences of HCC and cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), respectively. Finally, the incidence of PC was 1.19-fold higher in CD patients than in the general population (95% CI = 1.0741-1.3132, p = 0.0008).

CONCLUSION

Our study validated that IBD is a risk factor for HPBC. This causal relationship exhibited significant heterogeneity in different European and East Asian populations.

Regulation of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin-Induced Inflammation in Spleen Cells from Diabetic Mice by Polyphenols

Patients with diabetes are known to be more susceptible to infections following the establishment of Staphylococcus aureus in their nasal passages and on their skin. The present study evaluated the effects of staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) on the immune responses of spleen cells derived from diabetic mice, and examined the effects of polyphenols, catechins, and nobiletin on inflammation-related gene expression associated with the immune response. (-)-Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), possessing hydroxyl groups, interacted with SEA, whereas nobiletin, possessing methyl groups, did not interact with SEA. The exposure of spleen cells derived from diabetic mice to SEA enhanced the expression of interferon gamma, suppressor of cytokine signaling 1, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, interferon-induced transmembrane protein 3, Janus kinase 2, and interferon regulatory factor 3, suggesting that SEA sensitivity is variable in the development of diabetes. Both EGCG and nobiletin changed the expression of genes related to SEA-induced inflammation in spleen cells, suggesting that they inhibit inflammation through different mechanisms. These results may lead to a better understanding of the SEA-induced inflammatory response during diabetogenesis, and the establishment of methods to control these effects with polyphenols.

Regulatory Components of Oxidative Stress and Inflammation and Their Complex Interplay in Carcinogenesis

Cancer progression is closely linked to oxidative stress (OS) inflammation. OS is caused by an imbalance between the amount of reactive oxygen species produced and antioxidants present in the body. Excess ROS either oxidizes biomolecules or activates the signaling cascade, resulting in inflammation. Immune cells secrete cytokines and chemokines when inflammation is activated. These signaling molecules attract a wide range of immune cells to the site of infection or oxidative stress. Similarly, increased ROS production by immune cells at the inflamed site causes oxidative stress in the affected area. A review on the role of oxidative stress and inflammation in cancer-related literature was conducted to obtain data. All of the information gathered was focused on the current state of oxidative stress and inflammation in various cancers. After gathering all relevant information, a narrative review was created to provide a detailed note on oxidative stress and inflammation in cancer. Proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis, migration, invasion, metabolic changes, and evasion of programmed cell death are all aided by OS and inflammation in cancer. Imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidants lead to oxidative stress that damages macromolecules (nucleic acids, lipids and proteins). It causes breakdown of the biological signaling cascade. Prolonged oxidative stress causes inflammation by activating transcription factors (NF-κB, p53, HIF-1α, PPAR-γ, Nrf2, AP-1) that alter the expression of many other genes and proteins, including growth factors, tumor-suppressor genes, oncogenes, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, resulting in cancer cell survival. The present review article examines the complex relationship between OS and inflammation in certain types of cancer (colorectal, breast, lung, bladder, and gastric cancer).

Bamboo Shoot and Artemisia capillaris Extract Mixture Ameliorates Dextran Sodium Sulfate-Induced Colitis

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract and is characterized by recurrent chronic inflammation and mucosal damage of the gastrointestinal tract. Recent studies have demonstrated that bamboo shoot (BS) and Artemisia capillaris (AC) extracts enhance anti-inflammatory effects in various disease models. However, it is uncertain whether there is a synergistic protective effect of BS and AC in dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis. In the current study, we tested the combined effects of BS and AC extracts (BA) on colitis using in vivo and in vitro models. Compared with control mice, oral administration of DSS exacerbated colon length and increased the disease activity index (DAI) and histological damage. In DSS-induced colitis, treatment with BA significantly alleviated DSS-induced symptoms such as colon shortening, DAI, histological damage, and colonic pro-inflammatory marker expression compared to single extracts (BS or AC) treatment. Furthermore, we found BA treatment attenuated the ROS generation, F-actin formation, and RhoA activity compared with the single extract (BS or AC) treatment in DSS-treated cell lines. Collectively, these findings suggest that BA treatment has a positive synergistic protective effect on colonic inflammation compared with single extracts, it may be a highly effective complementary natural extract mixture for the prevention or treatment of IBD.

Deletion of cystathionine-γ-lyase in bone marrow-derived cells promotes colitis-associated carcinogenesis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is characterized by widespread relapsing inflammation of the colonic mucosa. Colitis-associated cancer (CAC) is one of the most serious complications of a prolonged history of UC. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has emerged as an important physiological mediator of gastrointestinal homeostasis, limiting mucosal inflammation and promoting tissue healing in response to injury. Inhibition of cystathionine-γ-lyase (CSE)-dependent H2S production in animal models of UC has been shown to exacerbate colitis and delay tissue repair. It is unknown whether CSE plays a role in CAC, or the downregulation of CSE expression and/or activity promotes CAC development. In humans, we observed a significant decrease in CSE expression in colonic biopsies from patients with UC. Using the dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) model of epithelium injury-induced colitis and global CSE KO mouse strain, we demonstrated that CSE is critical in limiting mucosal inflammation and stimulating epithelial cell proliferation in response to injury. In vitro studies showed that CSE activity stimulates epithelial cell proliferation, basal and cytokine-stimulated cell migration, as well as cytokine regulation of transepithelial permeability. In the azoxymethane (AOM)/DSS model of CAC, the loss of CSE expression accelerated both the development and progression of CAC. The increased tumor multiplicity and severity of CAC observed in CSE-KO mice were associated with reduced levels of mucosal IL-10 expression and increased levels of IL-6. Restoring CSE expression in bone marrow (BM) cells of CSE-KO mice through reciprocal BM transplantation raised mucosal IL-10 expression, decreased IL-6 level, and reduced the number of aberrant crypt foci and tumors in AOM/DSS-treated mice. These studies demonstrate that CSE expression in BM cells plays a critical role in suppressing CAC in mice. Furthermore, the data suggest that the inhibitory effects of CSE on the development of CAC are due, in part, to the modulation of mucosal pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokine expression.

Colon Cancer Pharmacogenetics: A Narrative Review

Currently, metastatic colon cancer is treated with monotherapeutic regimens such as folinic acid, fluorouracil, and oxaliplatin (FOLFOX), capecitabine and oxaliplatin (CapeOX), and leucovorin, fluorouracil, and irinotecan hydrochloride (FOLFIRI). Other treatments include biological therapies and immunotherapy with drugs such as bevacizumab, panitumumab, cetuximab, and pembrolizumab. After the research, it was found that some mutations make those treatments not as effective in all patients. In this bibliographic review, we investigated the pharmacogenetic explanations for how mutations in the genes coding for rat sarcoma virus (RAS) and rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (RAF) reduce the effectiveness of these treatments and allow the continued proliferation of tumors. Furthermore, we note that patients with mutations in the dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPDY) gene usually require lower doses of therapies such as 5-fluorouracyl (5-FU) and capecitabine to avoid severe adverse effects. Some other mutations in the thymidylate synthase gene (TSYM), methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene (MTHFR), and ATP binding cassette transporter B (ABCB1 and ABCB2) affect efficacy and security of the treatments. It is important to address the clinical implication of the oncologist in the study of gene mutations than can influence in the antitumoral response and safety of colon cancer treatments.

Potential effects of fructus aurantii ethanol extracts against colitis-associated carcinogenesis through coordination of Notch/NF-κB/IL-1 signaling pathways

Colitis-associated cancer (CAC) is the colorectal cancer (CRC) subtype that is difficult to treat, and shows high mortality. The consumption of flavonoid-rich fructus aurantii extracts (FAE) has been associated with multiple beneficial effects including anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties, but the potential effects on the colitis-associated carcinogenesis have not been thoroughly investigated. Recent clinical data show that, as yet, few agents clearly inhibited CRC development in long-standing inflammatory bowel diseases. Here, we identified that FAE showed significant efficiency to inhibit HT-29 cell proliferation. The potential of FAE in vivo was further evaluated in an AOM/DSS-induced CAC mouse model. Intriguingly, FAE diminished the number of polyps in mice. Furthermore, FAE inhibited CAC by regulating the gene expression of Notch/ NF-κB/IL-1 signaling pathways. Collectively, these results were indicative of FAE has great potential in CAC prevention and treatment.

Chemically Induced Colitis-Associated Cancer Models in Rodents for Pharmacological Modulation: A Systematic Review

Animal models for colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CACC) represent an important tool to explore the mechanistic basis of cancer-related inflammation, providing important evidence that several inflammatory mediators play specific roles in the initiation and perpetuation of colitis and CACC. Although several original articles have been published describing the CACC model in rodents, there is no consensus about the induction method. This review aims to identify, summarize, compare, and discuss the chemical methods for the induction of CACC through the PRISMA methodology.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE via the Pubmed platform for studies published through March 2021, using a highly sensitive search expression. The inclusion criteria were only original articles, articles where a chemically-induced animal model of CACC is described, preclinical studies in vivo with rodents, and articles published in English.

RESULTS

Chemically inducible models typically begin with the administration of a carcinogenic compound (as azoxymethane (AOM) or 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH)), and inflammation is caused by repeated cycles of colitis-inducing agents (such as 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) or dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)). The strains mostly used are C57BL/6 and Balb/c with 5-6 weeks. To characterize the preclinical model, the parameters more used include body weight, stool consistency and morbidity, inflammatory biomarkers such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1β, angiogenesis markers such as proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), marker of proliferation Ki-67, and caspase 3, the presence of ulcers, thickness or hyperemia in the colon, and histological evaluation of inflammation.

CONCLUSION

The AOM administration seems to be important to the CACC induction method, since the carcinogenic effect is achieved with just one administration. DSS has been the more used inflammatory agent; however, the TNBS contribution should be more studied, since it allows a reliable, robust, and a highly reproducible animal model of intestinal inflammation.

Immune-related biomarkers shared by inflammatory bowel disease and liver cancer

It has been indicated that there is an association between inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the molecular mechanism underlying the risk of developing HCC among patients with IBD is not well understood. The current study aimed to identify shared genes and potential pathways and regulators between IBD and HCC using a system biology approach. By performing the different gene expression analyses, we identified 871 common differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between IBD and HCC. Of these, 112 genes overlapped with immune genes were subjected to subsequent bioinformatics analyses. The results revealed four hub genes (CXCL2, MMP9, SPP1 and SRC) and several other key regulators including six transcription factors (FOXC1, FOXL1, GATA2, YY1, ZNF354C and TP53) and five microRNAs (miR-124-3p, miR-34a-5p, miR-1-3p, miR-7-5p and miR-99b-5p) for these disease networks. Protein-drug interaction analysis discovered the interaction of the hub genes with 46 SRC-related and 11 MMP9- related drugs that may have a therapeutic effect on IBD and HCC. In conclusion, this study sheds light on the potential connecting mechanisms of HCC and IBD.

N-Acetyldopamine Dimer Attenuates DSS-Induced Ulcerative Colitis by Suppressing NF-κB and MAPK Pathways

Ulcerative Colitis (UC) is a major form of chronic inflammatory bowel disease of the colonic mucosa and exhibits progressive morbidity. There is still a substantial need of small molecules with greater efficacy and safety for UC treatment. Here, we report a N-acetyldopamine dimer (NADD) elucidated (2R,3S)-2-(3′,4′-dihydroxyphenyl)-3-acetylamino-7-(N-acetyl-2″-aminoethyl)-1,4-benzodioxane, which is derived from traditional Chinese medicine Isaria cicadae, exhibits significant therapeutic efficacy against dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced UC. Functionally, NADD treatment effectively relieves UC symptoms, including weight loss, colon length shortening, colonic tissue damage and expression of pro-inflammatory factors in pre-clinical models. Mechanistically, NADD treatment significantly inhibits the expression of genes in inflammation related NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways by transcriptome analysis and western blot, which indicates that NADD inhibits the inflammation in UC might through these two pathways. Overall, this study identifies an effective small molecule for UC therapy.

Activation of the GPR35 pathway drives angiogenesis in the tumour microenvironment

OBJECTIVE

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is in 70% of cases associated with inflammatory bowel disease. The hypermorphic T108M variant of the orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR35 increases risk for PSC and ulcerative colitis (UC), conditions strongly predisposing for inflammation-associated liver and colon cancer. Lack of GPR35 reduces tumour numbers in mouse models of spontaneous and colitis associated cancer. The tumour microenvironment substantially determines tumour growth, and tumour-associated macrophages are crucial for neovascularisation. We aim to understand the role of the GPR35 pathway in the tumour microenvironment of spontaneous and colitis-associated colon cancers.

DESIGN

Mice lacking GPR35 on their macrophages underwent models of spontaneous colon cancer or colitis-associated cancer. The role of tumour-associated macrophages was then assessed in biochemical and functional assays.

RESULTS

Here, we show that GPR35 on macrophages is a potent amplifier of tumour growth by stimulating neoangiogenesis and tumour tissue remodelling. Deletion of Gpr35 in macrophages profoundly reduces tumour growth in inflammation-associated and spontaneous tumour models caused by mutant tumour suppressor adenomatous polyposis coli. Neoangiogenesis and matrix metalloproteinase activity is promoted by GPR35 via Na/K-ATPase-dependent ion pumping and Src activation, and is selectively inhibited by a GPR35-specific pepducin. Supernatants from human inducible-pluripotent-stem-cell derived macrophages carrying the UC and PSC risk variant stimulate tube formation by enhancing the release of angiogenic factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Activation of the GPR35 pathway promotes tumour growth via two separate routes, by directly augmenting proliferation in epithelial cells that express the receptor, and by coordinating macrophages' ability to create a tumour-permissive environment.

The Emerging Role of Janus Kinase Inhibitors in the Treatment of Cancer

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide. The Janus kinase (JAK) signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signalling pathway is activated abnormally, which promotes carcinogenesis. Several cytokines are important cancer drivers. These proteins bind to receptors and use the Janus kinase (JAK) and STAT pathways to communicate their responses. Cancer risks are linked to genetic differences in the JAK-STAT system. JAK inhibitors have shown to reduce STAT initiation, tissue propagation, and cell existence in preclinical investigations in solid tumour cell line models. JAK inhibitors, notably ruxolitinib, a, JAK1 or 2 blockers, make cell lines and mouse models more susceptible to radiotherapy, biological response modifier therapy, and oncolytic viral treatment. Numerous JAK antagonists have been or are now being evaluated in cancerous patients as monotherapy or by combining with other drugs in clinical studies. In preclinical investigations, certain JAK inhibitors showed promise anticancer effects; however, clinical trials explicitly evaluating their effectiveness against the JAK/STAT system in solid tumours have yet to be completed. JAK inhibition is a promising strategy to target the JAK/STAT system in solid tumours, and it deserves to be tested further in clinical studies. The function of directing Janus kinases (JAKs), an upstream accelerator of STATs, as a technique for lowering STAT activity in various malignant circumstances is summarized in this article, which will help scientists to generate more specific drug molecules in future.

Gamma-Oryzanol-Rich Fraction from Purple Rice Extract Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Inflammatory Responses, Migration and VEGFA Production in SW480 Cells via Modulation of TLR4 and NF-κB Pathways

Inflammatory response facilitating colorectal cancer (CRC) progression is a serious event following operative infection, which can occur in CRC patients. This event is mainly mediated by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), via a toll like receptor 4 (TLR4) and NF-κB. Hexane soluble fraction (HSF) from purple rice extract (PRE) has been identified as a γ-oryzanol (OR)-rich fraction. Recently, HSF possessed inhibitory effect of LPS-stimulated metastasis of human colon cancer SW480 cells, however the related mechanism was unknown. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effect of HSF on inflammatory response-associated cancer progression of LPS-stimulated SW480 cells. The various inflammatory mediators, vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGFA) and related pathways were evaluated by Western blot and ELISA. Furthermore, cell migration was also determined by migration assays. Of all, HSF seemed to be stronger than OR to attenuate the responsiveness of LPS on various inflammatory mediators, which was related to an obvious reduction of cancer cell migration as well as indistinct disruption on VEGFA production in SW480 cells, via downregulation of TLR4 and NF-κB. Therefore, OR-rich fraction from PRE, against the subsequent inflammatory response and CRC progression following surgery, which could be combined with conventional treatments to increase the survival rate.

Orally Deliverable Dual-Targeted Pellets for the Synergistic Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis

Purpose

The effective treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC) poses substantial challenges, and the aetiopathogenesis of UC is closely related to infectious, immunological and environmental factors. Currently, there is a considerable need for the development of orally bioavailable dosage forms that enable the effective delivery of therapeutic drugs to local diseased lesions in the gastrointestinal tract.

Methods

Berberine (BBR) and Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (AM) volatile oil, derived from the Chinese herbs Coptis chinensis Franch and Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz, have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities. In this study, we prepared colon-targeted pellets loaded with BBR and stomach-targeted pellets loaded with AM volatile oil for the synergistic treatment of UC. The Box-Behnken design and β-cyclodextrin inclusion technique were used to optimize the enteric coating formula and prepare volatile oil inclusion compounds.

Results

The two types of pellets were spherical and had satisfactory physical properties. The pharmacokinetic results showed that the AUC and MRT values of the dual-targeted (DPs) pellets were higher than those of the control pellets. In addition, in vivo animal imaging confirmed that the DPs could effectively deliver BBR to the colon. Moreover, compared with sulfasalazine and monotherapy, DPs exerted a more significant anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the expression of inflammatory factors including IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, TNF-α and MPO both in serum and tissues and enhancing immunity by decreasing the production of IgA and IgG.

Conclusion

The DPs play a synergistic anti-UC effect by exerting systemic and local anti-inflammatory and provide an effective oral targeted preparation for the treatment of UC.

Associations of Bitumen Fumes with Lymphocyte Subsets and Cytokines Expression in the Peripheral Blood of Exposed Workers

OBJECTIVES

The present study aimed to investigate the distribution of lymphocyte subsets and cytokines expression in the peripheral blood of bitumen fumes-exposed workers.

METHODS

In this study, 129 workers from molding and roasting workshops were recruited as the exposed group and 99 office and quality inspection staff were chosen as the control. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) levels of bitumen fumes in individual and fixed-point air samples and the urinary levels of 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OH-P), 1-hydroxynaphthols (1-OH-N) and 2-hydroxynaphthols (2-OH-N) in workers were measured using High Performance Liquid Chromatography. The lymphocyte subsets and serum cytokines concentrations were analyzed by flow cytometry and cytometric bead array, respectively.

RESULTS

The median values of PAHs were 0.08 mg/m3 for permissible concentration-time weighted average and 0.12 mg/m3 for permissible concentration-short term exposure (PC-STEL) in molding and roasting workshops, which were higher than that in the control area (< 0.01 mg/m3). Multivariate linear regression models were used to adjust for influential covariates, including age, gender, work age, smoking status, and alcohol consumptions. After adjusting for these covariates, we compared levels of urinary PAHs metabolites, the percentages of lymphocyte subsets, and serum cytokines concentrations between the two groups. The 1-OH-P, 1-OH-N, and 2-OH-N levels in the urine of bitumen fumes exposed workers were significantly higher than that in the controls (P < 0.05). Compared with the control group, the percentage of the natural killer (NK) cell (CD56+ cell) was significantly increased in the exposed group (P < 0.001). There was a significant decrease in the percentages of CD3+ T cell, CD4+ T cell, and CD8+ T cell in the exposed group compared to the control (P < 0.001). The serum levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 in bitumen fumes exposed workers were significantly higher than that of the controls (P < 0.05). Moreover, positive correlations were observed between the serum levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and urinary 1-OH-P levels in bitumen fumes-exposed workers, respectively (P < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the serum levels of IL-8, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), macrophage inflammatory protein-1β (MIP-1β) and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) between the exposed group and the control group (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Our study suggested that low dose of bitumen fumes exposure could decrease the percentage of T cell, increase the percentage of NK cell and stimulate the release of serum IL-1β and IL-6 in the peripheral blood of exposed workers. The serum levels of IL-1β and IL-6 were positive correlated with the urinary 1-OH-P levels in bitumen fumes exposed workers. These results may inform the search for potential effective biomarkers and provide evidences for early health monitoring in workers occupationally exposed to bitumen fumes.

Transcriptome Profiling and Metagenomic Analysis Help to Elucidate Interactions in an Inflammation-Associated Cancer Mouse Model

Simple Summary

Colitis-associated colorectal cancer is the third most significant condition that increases the overall risk of developing colorectal cancer. In this study, we examined normal colonic mucosa of tumor-bearing mice in the DSS/AOM mouse model by gene expression profiling and fecal samples by 16s rDNA amplicon sequencing. Gene set enrichment analysis revealed that genes associated with fatty acid metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, and the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathways were enriched colonic mucosa of DSS/AOM mice. Additionally, enrichment of the sphingolipid signal and lipoarabinomannan biosynthetic pathways were inferred from fecal microbial composition. Our findings provide insights into altered transcriptome and microbiome in a mouse model of colitis-induced carcinogenesis.

Abstract

Colitis is a risk factor for colorectal cancer (CRC) and can change the dynamics of gut microbiota, leading to dysbiosis and contributing to carcinogenesis. The functional interactions between colitis-associated CRC and microbiota remain unknown. In this study, colitis and CRC were induced in BALB/c mice by the administration of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) and/or azoxymethane (AOM). Whole transcriptome profiling of normal colon was then performed, and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) revealed enriched fatty acid metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, and PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling in the tissues from DSS/AOM mice. Additionally, immunohistochemical staining showed increased expression levels of phosphorylated S6 ribosomal protein, a downstream target of the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway in the inflamed mucosa of DSS/AOM mice. Fecal microbes were characterized using 16S rDNA gene sequencing. Redundancy analysis demonstrated a significant dissimilarity between the DSS/AOM group and the others. Functional analysis inferred from microbial composition showed enrichments of the sphingolipid signal and lipoarabinomannan biosynthetic pathways. This study provides additional insights into alterations associated with DSS/AOM-induced colitis and associates PI3K-Akt-mTOR, sphingolipid-signaling and lipoarabinomannan biosynthetic pathways in mouse DSS/AOM-induced colitis.

Promising Chemoprevention of Colonic Aberrant Crypt Foci by Portunus segnis Muscle and Shell Extracts in Azoxymethane-Induced Colorectal Cancer in Rats

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

This study subjected a rat model to the extracts of muscle and shell tissues from Portunus segnis to assess their therapeutic effects on the HT-29 colon cancer cells as well as on colonic Aberrant Crypt Foci (ACF) induced by Azoxymethane (AOM).

METHODS

The cell line was exposed to the extracts to compare the cytotoxicity of hexane, butanol, ethyl acetate, and water extract of muscle and ethanolic extract of the shell. Male rats (n=40) were assigned into control, positive, negative, and treatment groups. The animals were injected with AOM, except the control group, and then exposed to 250 and 500mg/kg of the crude extracts. Immunohistochemical localization of Bax and Bcl-2, as well as ACF and antioxidant enzymes, were evaluated in the rat colon.

RESULTS

The butanolic muscle extract and ethanolic shell one demonstrated an IC50 of 9.02±0.19μg/ml and 20.23±0.27μg/ml towards the cell line, respectively. Dietary exposure inhibited the ACF formation and crypt multiplicity in the colon compared to the cancer control group. The activity of SOD and CAT increased, while that of MDA decreased. The expression of Bax and Bcl-2 increased and decreased, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, the results show that both extractions were suggested to be suppressive to AOMinduced colon cancer.

The Risk of Extraintestinal Cancer in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Population-based Cohort Studies

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Patients with Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are at increased risk of developing intestinal cancer. However, less is known about the risk of extraintestinal cancers (EICs). The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based cohorts assessing the risk of EICs in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients.

METHODS

Only population-based studies reporting on the prevalence or incidence of EICs were included. In total, 884 studies were screened and those included were assessed for quality. Eligible studies were pooled for length of follow-up evaluation, events in the IBD population, and events or expected events in a control population for the meta-analyses.

RESULTS

In total, 40 studies were included in the systematic review and 15 studies were included in the meta-analysis. The overall risk of EICs was found to be increased in both CD (incidence rate ratio [IRR]: 1.43 [CI, 1.26, 1.63]) and UC (IRR: 1.15 [1.02, 1.31]) patients. Both CD and UC patients presented with an increased risk of skin (IRR: CD, 2.22 [1.41-3.48]; UC, 1.38 [1.12-1.71]) and hepatobiliary (IRR: CD, 2.31 [1.25-4.28]; UC, 2.05 [1.52-2.76]) malignancies. Furthermore, CD patients showed an increased risk of hematologic (IRR, 2.40 [1.81-3.18]) and lung (IRR, 1.53 [1.23-1.91]) cancers. These increased risks were present despite treatment with immunosuppressives.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review and meta-analysis shows that both CD and UC patients are at an increased risk of developing EICs, both overall and at specific sites. However, additional studies with longer follow-up evaluation are needed to assess the true risk of EICs posed by IBD.

Flower extract of Caragana sinica. ameliorates DSS-induced ulcerative colitis by affecting TLR4/NF-κB and TLR4/MAPK signaling pathway in a mouse model

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to find out the protective effects and preliminary mechanisms of the flower extract of Caragana sinica (FEC) on dextran sulfate sodium salt (DSS)-induced colitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ulcerative colitis models of mice induced by 3% DSS were established and treated with FEC. Body weight changes, disease activity index (DAI), colon histopathological score, anti-oxidant ability, and the level of inflammatory cytokines were determined. The expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) were assessed in colonic tissue by immunohistochemical staining. Western blot was used to analyze the expression of TLR4/ nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) and TLR4/ mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway-related proteins.

RESULTS

FEC significantly prevented body weight loss and colonic shortening and reduced the disease activity index and histopathological score (P<0.05). Moreover, FEC treatment remarkably down-regulated the levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO), interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) and up-regulated the levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), and interleukin 10 (IL-10) in the colon of DSS mice (P<0.05). Furthermore, the expression of TLR4/NF-κB and TLR4/MAPK pathway-related proteins was inhibited by FEC (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrated that FEC could serve as a potential therapeutic agent for treatment of ulcerative colitis.

Therapeutic effects of dihydroartemisinin in multiple stages of colitis-associated colorectal cancer

Colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC) develops from chronic intestinal inflammation. Dihydroartemisinin (DHA) is an antimalarial drug exhibiting anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor effects. Nonetheless, the therapeutic effects of DHA on CAC remain unestablished.

Methods: Mice were challenged with azoxymethane (AOM) and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) to establish CAC models. DHA was administered via oral gavage in different stages of CAC models. Colon and tumor tissues were obtained from the AOM/DSS models to investigate inflammatory responses and tumor development. Inflammatory cytokines in the murine models were detected through qRT-PCR and ELISA. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling-related proteins were detected by western blot. Macrophage infiltration was measured using immunostaining analysis, and apoptosis in the colon cancer cells was detected by flow cytometry and western blot.

Results: DHA inhibited inflammatory responses in the early stage of the AOM/DSS model and subsequent tumor formation. In the early stage, DHA reversed macrophage infiltration in colon mucosa and decreased the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. DHA inhibited the activation of macrophage by suppressing the TLR4 signal pathway. In the late stage of CAC, DHA inhibited tumor growth by enhancing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in tumor cells. Administration of DHA during the whole period of the AOM/DSS model generated an addictive effect based on the inhibition of inflammation and tumor growth, thereby improving the therapeutic effect of DHA on CAC.

Conclusion: Our study indicated that DHA could be a potent agent in managing the initiation and development of CAC without obvious side effects, warranting further clinical translation of DHA for CAC treatment.

Alteration of oxidative-stress and related marker levels in mouse colonic tissues and fecal microbiota structures with chronic ethanol administration: Implications for the pathogenesis of ethanol-related colorectal cancer

Chronic ethanol consumption is a risk factor for colorectal cancer, and ethanol-induced reactive oxygen species have been suggested to play important roles in the pathogenesis of ethanol-related colorectal cancer (ER-CRC). In this study, the effects of 10-week chronic administration of ethanol on the colonic levels of oxidative stress and advance glycation end product (AGE) levels, as well as fecal microbiota structures, were examined in a mouse model. Chronic oral administration of ethanol in mice (1.0 mL of 1.5% or 5.0% ethanol (v/v) per day per mouse, up to 10 weeks) resulted in the elevation of colonic levels of oxidative stress markers (such as 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and 4-hydroxynonenal) compared to control mice, and this was consistently accompanied by elevated levels of inflammation-associated cytokines and immune cells (Th17 and macrophages) and a decreased level of regulatory T (Treg) cells to produce colonic lesions. It also resulted in an alteration of mouse fecal microbiota structures, reminiscent of the alterations observed in human inflammatory bowel disease, and this appeared to be consistent with the proposed sustained generation of oxidative stress in the colonic environment during chronic ethanol consumption. Moreover, the first experimental evidence that chronic ethanol administration results in elevated levels of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and their receptors (RAGE) in the colonic tissues in mice is also shown, implying enhanced RAGE-mediated signaling with chronic ethanol administration. The RAGE-mediated signaling pathway has thus far been implicated as a link between the accumulation of AGEs and the development of many types of chronic colitis and cancers. Thus, enhancement of this pathway likely exacerbates the ethanol-induced inflammatory states of colonic tissues and might at least partly contribute to the pathogenesis of ER-CRC.

The gut microbiome and potential implications for early-onset colorectal cancer

Recently, there has been an unexpected trend toward increased incidence of colorectal cancer in younger individuals, particularly distal colon and rectal cancer in those under age 50. There is evidence to suggest that the human gut microbiome may play a role in carcinogenesis. The microbiome is dynamic and varies with age, geography, ethnicity and diet. Certain bacteria such as Fusobacterium nucleatum have been implicated in the development of colorectal and other gastrointestinal cancers. Recent data suggest that bacteria can alter the inflammatory and immune environment, influencing carcinogenesis, lack of treatment response and prognosis. Studies to date focus on older patients. Because the microbiome varies with age, it could be a potential explanation for the rise in early-onset colorectal cancer.

Cyclic derivative of morphiceptin Dmt-cyclo-(D-Lys-Phe-D-Pro-Asp)-NH2(P-317), a mixed agonist of MOP and KOP opioid receptors, exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activity in colitis and colitis-associated colorectal cancer in mice

Endogenous opioid system is involved in the maintenance of the intestinal homeostasis. Recently, we proved that stimulation of opioid receptors using P-317, a cyclic morphiceptin analog, resulted in the alleviation of acute colitis in mice. The aim of the current study was to assess the effect of P-317 during colitis and colitis-associated colorectal cancer in mice. Colitis was induced by addition of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) into drinking water. Colitis-associated colorectal cancer was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of azoxymethane (AOM) and subsequent addition of DSS into drinking water (week 2, 5, 8). During macroscopic damage evaluation the samples were collected and used for biochemical (MPO activity assay), molecular (qPCR and western blot) and histological studies. In experimental colitis, P-317 induced an anti-inflammatory response as indicated by macroscopic and microscopic scores. In the colitis-associated colorectal cancer model, a significant difference in colorectal tumor development was observed between vehicle- and P-317-treated mice. P-317 decreased the total number of colonic tumors and inhibited MPO activity. Hematoxylin and eosin staining confirmed anti-tumor activity of P-317. The expression of TNF-α was decreased in P-317-treated mice as compared to the vehicle-treated group. P-317 decreased proliferation as well as β-catenin expression in tumors. P-317, a mixed MOP and KOP receptor agonist, induced an anti-inflammatory response in experimental colitis and decreased tumor development in colitis-associated colorectal cancer in mice.

Influence of Iron on the Gut Microbiota in Colorectal Cancer

Perturbations of the colonic microbiota can contribute to the initiation and progression of colorectal cancer, leading to an increase in pathogenic bacteria at the expense of protective bacteria. This can contribute to disease through increasing carcinogenic metabolite/toxin production, inducing inflammation, and activating oncogenic signaling. To limit disease progression, external factors that may influence the colonic microbiota need to be considered in patients with colorectal cancer. One major factor that can influence the colonic microbiota is iron. Iron is an essential micronutrient that is required by both prokaryotes and eukaryotes for cellular function. Most pathogenic bacteria have heightened iron acquisition mechanisms and therefore tend to outcompete protective bacteria for free iron. Colorectal cancer patients often present with anemia due to iron deficiency, and thus they require iron therapy. Depending upon the route of administration, iron therapy has the potential to contribute to a procarciongenic microbiota. Orally administered iron is the common treatment for anemia in these patients but can lead to an increased gut iron concentration. This suggests the need to reassess the route of iron therapy in these patients. Currently, this has only been assessed in murine studies, with human trials being necessary to unravel the potential microbial outcomes of iron therapy.

The Emerging Role of PPAR Beta/Delta in Tumor Angiogenesis

PPARs are ligand-activated transcriptional factors that belong to the nuclear receptor superfamily. Among them, PPAR alpha and PPAR gamma are prone to exert an antiangiogenic effect, whereas PPAR beta/delta has an opposite effect in physiological and pathological conditions. Angiogenesis has been known as a hallmark of cancer, and our recent works also demonstrate that vascular-specific PPAR beta/delta overexpression promotes tumor angiogenesis and progression in vivo. In this review, we will mainly focus on the role of PPAR beta/delta in tumor angiogenesis linked to the tumor microenvironment to further facilitate tumor progression and metastasis. Moreover, the crosstalk between PPAR beta/delta and its downstream key signal molecules involved in tumor angiogenesis will also be discussed, and the network of interplay between them will further be established in the review.

Similarities between the Yin/Yang Doctrine and Hormesis in Toxicology and Pharmacology

Hormesis is a generalizable dose-response relationship characterized by low-dose stimulation and high-dose inhibition. Despite debate over this biphasic dose-response curve, hormesis is challenging central beliefs in the evaluation of chemicals or drugs and has influenced biological model selection, concentration range, study design, and hypothesis testing. We integrate the traditional Chinese philosophy - Yin/Yang doctrine - into the representation of the Western hormetic dose-response relationship and review the Yin/Yang historical philosophy contained in the hormesis concept, aiming to promote general acceptance and wider applications of hormesis. We suggest that the Yin/Yang doctrine embodies the hormetic dose-response, including the relationship between the opposing components, curve shape, and time-dependence, and may afford insights that clarify the hormetic dose-response relationship in toxicology and pharmacology.

The IL-1 family cytokines and receptors in autoimmune diseases

The role of the cytokines and receptors of the IL-1 family in inflammation is well known. Several cytokines of the family have a powerful inflammatory activity, with IL-1β being the best-characterized factor. The inflammatory activity of IL-1 cytokines is regulated by other factors of the family, including receptor antagonists, soluble receptors and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The causative role of IL-1β is well-established in autoinflammatory diseases, mainly due to gain-of-function mutations in genes encoding the IL-1β-maturing inflammasome. Exaggerated production of IL-1β and IL-18 correlates with disease and disease severity also in several autoimmune and chronic inflammatory and degenerative pathologies, although it is not clear whether they have a causative role or are only involved in the downstream disease symptoms. A better understanding of the pathological role of IL-1 family cytokines in autoimmunity involves a deeper evaluation, in the pathological situations, of the possible anomalies in the feed-back anti-inflammatory mechanisms that in physiological reactions control and dump IL-1-mediated inflammation. Thus, we expect that IL-1 cytokines may be pathogenic only when, in addition to enhanced production, there is a concomitant failure of their control mechanisms. In this review we will examine the current knowledge on the role of IL-1 family cytokines in autoimmune and chronic inflammatory and degenerative diseases, with a particular focus on their endogenous control mechanisms, mainly based on soluble receptors/inhibitors and receptor antagonists. This will allow us to formulate a knowledge-based hypothesis on the involvement of IL-1 cytokines in the pathogenesis vs. the clinical features of these diseases.

Ellagic acid protects Caco-2 cell monolayers against inflammation-induced permeabilization

Chronic intestinal inflammation involves a cycle of oxidative stress, activation of redox sensitive transcription factors, and barrier permeabilization. The latter can lead to systemic inflammation and its associated co-morbidities. Diet can play a major role in the modulation of intestinal inflammation. Among plant bioactives, ellagic acid (EA) was reported to inhibit inflammatory bowel disease in animal models. This work investigated the mechanisms by which EA inhibits tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα)-induced inflammation, oxidative stress, and loss of barrier integrity. Caco-2 cells differentiated into an intestinal epithelial cell monolayer were incubated with TNFα (10 ng/ml), in the presence of different EA concentrations. TNFα triggered interleukin (IL) 6 and 8 release into the medium, which was inhibited by EA in a dose-dependent manner (IC₅₀ = 17.3 μM for IL-6). TNFα also led to: i) increased ICAM-1 and NLRP3 expression; ii) loss of epithelial barrier function; iii) increased oxidant production from NOX and mitochondrial origin; iv) NF-κB and ERK1/2 activation; and v) increased MLCK gene expression and MLC phosphorylation. EA (10-40 μM) inhibited all these adverse effects of TNFα. EA mainly acted through NF-κB and ERK1/2 inhibition, breaking the cycle of inflammation, oxidative stress, redox-sensitive pathway (e.g. NF-κB, ERK1/2) activation and intestinal permeabilization. This suggests that consumption of EA, via foods or supplements, may afford a strategy to mitigate intestinal inflammation and its associated co-morbidities.

Andrographolide sulfonate ameliorates chronic colitis induced by TNBS in mice via decreasing inflammation and fibrosis

Inflammatory bowel disease could result in diarrhea and abdominal pain, as well as potential complications such as tissue fibrosis. The therapeutic effect of andrographolide sulfonate on acute murine experimental colitis induced by 2, 4, 6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) has been confirmed. In the study here, chronic colitis triggered by repeated intrarectal administration of TNBS was established and the effect of andrographolide sulfonate was examined. Repeated TNBS administration induced substantial mice death, which was significantly decreased by andrographolide sulfonate treatment. The elevation of inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, IL-17A, TNF-α as well as IFN-γ in colonic tissues levels were decreased after administration of andrographolide sulfonate. Next, CD4⁺ T cell and macrophage infiltration was found to descend. The subset of pathogenic CD4⁺ T cell subset including CD4⁺IFN-γ⁺ (Th1) and CD4⁺IL-17A⁺ (Th17) were also suppressed by andrographolide sulfonate. Further, the restrain of p38 and p65 activation were also observed after andrographolide sulfonate administration. Finally, TNBS-induced colonic epithelial damage as well as fibrosis were significantly mitigated by andrographolide sulfonate. Based on the results got here, we can make a conclusion that andrographolide sulfonate could decrease inflammation and epithelial damage as well as fibrosis thus ameliorating chronic colitis in mice. Our study suggest the possible use of andrographolide sulfonate for chronic colitis treatment in clinical.

Theracurmin inhibits intestinal polyp development in Apc-mutant mice by inhibiting inflammation-related factors

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of cancer death worldwide. Therefore, it is important to establish useful methods for preventing CRC. One prevention strategy involves the use of cancer chemopreventive agents, including functional foods. We focused on the well‐known cancer chemopreventive agent curcumin, which is derived from turmeric. However, curcumin has the disadvantage of being poorly soluble in water due to its high hydrophobicity. To overcome this problem, the formation of submicron particles with surface controlled technology has been applied to curcumin to give it remarkably improved water solubility, and this derived compound is named Theracurmin. To date, the preventive effects of Theracurmin on hereditary intestinal carcinogenesis have not been elucidated. Thus, we used Apc‐mutant mice, a model of familial adenomatous polyposis, to evaluate the effects of Theracurmin. First, we showed that treatment with 10‐20 µM Theracurmin for 24 hours reduced nuclear factor‐κB (NF‐κB) transcriptional activity in human colon cancer DLD‐1 and HCT116 cells. However, treatment with curcumin mixed in water did not change the NF‐κB promoter transcriptional activity. As NF‐κB is a regulator of inflammation‐related factors, we next investigated the downstream targets of NF‐κB: monocyte chemoattractant protein‐1 (MCP‐1) and interleukin (IL)‐6. We found that treatment with 500 ppm Theracurmin for 8 weeks inhibited intestinal polyp development and suppressed MCP‐1 and IL‐6 mRNA expression levels in the parts of the intestine with polyps. This report provides a proof of concept for the ongoing Theracurmin human trial (J‐CAP‐C study).

Toll-Interacting Protein Regulates Immune Cell Infiltration and Promotes Colitis-Associated Cancer

Expression of Toll-interacting protein (Tollip), a potent TLR modulator, decreases in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), whereas Tollip^−/− mice are susceptible to colitis. Tollip expression was shown to be reduced in sporadic adenoma . In contrast, we found variable Tollip expression in patients with colitis-associated adenomas. In Tollip^−/− mice challenged to develop colitis-associated cancer (CAC), tumor formation was significantly reduced owing to decreased mucosal proliferative and apoptotic indexes. This protection was associated with blunt inflammatory responses without significant changes in microbial composition. mRNA expression of Cd62l and Ccr5 homing receptors was reduced in colons of untreated Tollip^−/− mice, whereas CD62L⁺ CD8⁺ T cells accumulated in the periphery. In Tollip-deficient adenomas Ctla-4 mRNA expression and tumor-infiltrating CD4⁺ Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cell (Treg) were decreased. Our data show that protection from CAC in Tollip-deficient mice is associated with defects in lymphocyte accumulation and composition in colitis-associated adenomas.

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Tollip protects from colitis but promotes colitis-associated cancer onset

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Tollip-deficient tumors demonstrate decreased cell turnover and inflammation

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Tollip ablation favors naive CD8⁺ T cell accumulation in peripheral lymphoid organs

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Regulatory T cell accumulation is aberrant in Tollip-deficient tumors

Dichotomous roles of claudins as tumor promoters or suppressors: lessons from knockout mice

Claudins are a family of integral tight junction proteins that regulate paracellular permeability in polarized epithelia. Overexpression or reduction of claudins can both promote and limit cancer progression, revealing complex dichotomous roles for claudins depending on cellular context. In contrast, recent studies demonstrating tumor formation in claudin knockout mouse models indicate a role for several claudin family members in suppressing tumor initiation. For example, intestine-specific claudin-7 knockout mice spontaneously develop atypical hyperplasia and intestinal adenomas, while claudin-18 knockout mice develop carcinomas in the lung and stomach. Claudin-4, -11, and -15 knockout mice show increased cell proliferation and/or hyperplasia in urothelium, Sertoli cells, and small intestinal crypts, respectively, possibly a precursor to cancer development. Pathways implicated in both cell proliferation and tumorigenesis include Yap/Taz and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R)/Akt pathways, among others. Consistent with the tumor suppressive role of claudins shown in mice, in humans, claudin-low breast cancer has been described as a distinct entity with a poor prognosis, and claudin-18-Rho GTPase activating protein 26 (CLDN18-ARHGAP26) fusion protein as a driver gene aberration in diffuse-type gastric cancer due to effects on RhoA. Paradoxically, claudins have also garnered interest as targets for therapy, as they are sometimes aberrantly expressed in cancer cells, which may or may not promote cancer progression. For example, a chimeric monoclonal antibody which targets cells expressing claudin-18.2 through antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity has shown promise in multiple phase II studies. In this review, we focus on new findings supporting a tumor suppressive role for claudins during cancer initiation.